Table 1.

Directionality of physiological endpoints from studies investigating new dietary strategies.

Outcome responses	Calorie restriction	Alternate-day fasting	Alternate-day modified fasting	5:2 intermittent fasting	Time-restricted feeding	Protein restriction	References
Metabolic adaptation, oxidative stress and core temperature
mass-specific energy expenditure	↓	↓, ↔	-	↓, ↔	-	-	(Antoni et al., 2018; Catenacci et al., 2016; Heilbronn et al., 2005a; Pinto et al., 2019; Ravussin et al., 2015; Redman et al., 2018; Soeter et al., 2009)
oxidative stress	↓	-	↓	↓, ↔	↓	-	(Harvie et al., 2011, 2013; Il’yasova et al., 2018; Johnson et al., 2007; Ravussin et al., 2015; Sutton et al., 2018)
core temperature	↔	↔	-	-	↔	-	(Heilbronn et al., 2005a; Ravussin et al., 2015; Stote et al., 2007)
dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate	↔	-	-	↔	-	-	(Harvie et al., 2011; Ravussin et al., 2015)
Body composition
fat mass	↓	↓, ↔	↓	↓	↓, ↔	↓, ↔	(Antoni et al., 2018; Bhutani et al., 2013; Carter et al., 2016; Catenacci et al., 2016; Das et al., 2017; Fontana et al., 2008, 2016a; Harvie et al., 2011; Halberg et al., 2005; Headland et al., 2018; Heilbronn et al., 2005a; Hoddy et al., 2014, 2016; Hutchison et al., 2019a; Kahleova et al., 2018; Klempel et al., 2013; Moro et al., 2016; Pinto et al., 2019; Ravussin et al., 2015; Soeter et al., 2009; Stekovic et al., 2019; Stote et al., 2007; Tinsley et al., 2017; Trepanowski et al., 2017; Varady et al., 2013)
fat-free mass	↓	↓, ↔	↓, ↔	↓	↔	-	(Antoni et al., 2018; Carter et al., 2016; Catenacci et al., 2016; Das et al., 2017; Harvie et al., 2011; Headland et al., 2018; Heilbronn et al., 2005a; Hoddy et al., 2014, 2016; Hutchison et al., 2019a; Kahleova et al., 2018; Klempel et al., 2013; Moro et al., 2016; Pinto et al., 2019; Ravussin et al., 2015; Soeter et al., 2009; Stekovic et al., 2019; Stote et al., 2007; Tinsley et al., 2017; Trepanowski et al., 2017; Varady et al., 2013)
visceral adipose tissue	↓	-	↓	-	-	↓	(Hoddy et al., 2014, 2016; Kahleova et al., 2018; Most et al., 2018; Trepanowski et al., 2017
Cardiometabolic risk markers
Insulin and/or insulin area under the curve	↓	↓, ↔	↓, ↔	↓	↓, ↔	↓	(Antoni et al., 2018; Carlson et al., 2007; Catenacci et al., 2016; Fontana et al., 2008, 2016a; Gabel et al., 2019; Harvie et al., 2011, 2013; Halberg et al., 2005; Heilbronn et al., 2005a; Hoddy et al., 2016; Hutchison et al., 2019a; Johnson et al., 2007; Kahleova et al., 2018; Kraus et al., 2019; Moro et al., 2016; Pinto et al., 2019; Ravussin et al., 2015; Soeters et al., 2009; Sutton et al., 2018; Trepanowski et al., 2017, 2018)
Glucose	↓	↓, ↔	↓, ↔	↓, ↔	↓, ↔, ↑	↓	(Antoni et al., 2018, 2016; Carlson et al., 2007; Catenacci et al., 2016; Fontana et al., 2016a; Harvie et al., 2011; Halberg et al., 2005; Headland et al., 2018; Heilbronn et al., 2005a; Hoddy et al., 2014, 2016; Hutchison et al., 2019a; 2019b; Johnson et al., 2007; Kahleova et al., 2018; Kraus et al., 2019; Moro et al., 2016; Pinto et al., 2019; Ravussin et al., 2015; Soeters et al., 2009; Sundfør et al., 2018; Sutton et al., 2018; Trepanowski et al., 2017)
Blood pressure	↓	↓, ↔	↓, ↔	↓	↓, ↑	-	(Antoni et al., 2018; Bhutani et al., 2013; Harvie et al., 2011, 2013; Heilbronn et al., 2005a; Johnson et al., 2007; Klempel et al., 2013; Kraus et al., 2019; Pinto et al., 2019; Ravussin et al., 2015; Stekovic et al., 2019; Sundfør et al., 2018; Stote et al., 2007; Sutton et al., 2018; Trepanowski et al., 2017; Varady et al., 2013)
Triglyceride	↓	↓, ↔	↓, ↔	↓, ↔	↓, ↔, ↑	↓	(Antoni et al., 2018; Catenacci et al., 2016; Harvie et al., 2011, 2013; Headland et al., 2018; Heilbronn et al., 2005a; Hoddy et al., 2014; Johnson et al., 2007; Klempel et al., 2013; Kraus et al., 2019; Moro et al., 2016; Pinto et al., 2019; Ravussin et al., 2015; Stekovic et al., 2019; Stote et al., 2007; Sundfør et al., 2018; Sutton et al., 2018; Trepanowski et al., 2017; Treviño-Villarreal et al., 2018; Varady et al., 2009)
Total cholesterol	↓	↓, ↔	↓	↓, ↔	↓, ↔, ↑	-	(Antoni et al., 2018; Catenacci et al., 2016; Harvie et al., 2011, 2013; Headland et al., 2018; Heilbronn et al., 2005a; Hoddy et al., 2014; Hutchison et al., 2019a; Johnson et al., 2007; Klempel et al., 2013; Kraus et al., 2019; Moro et al., 2016; Pinto et al., 2019; Ravussin et al., 2015; Stekovic et al., 2019; Stote et al., 2007; Sundfør et al., 2018; Sutton et al., 2018; Trepanowski et al., 2017; Treviño-Villarreal et al., 2018; Varady et al., 2009)
Low-density lipoproteins	↓	↓, ↔	↓, ↔	↓, ↔	↓, ↔	-	(Antoni et al., 2018; Catenacci et al., 2016; Harvie et al., 2011, 2013; Headland et al., 2018; Heilbronn et al., 2005a; Hoddy et al., 2014; Hutchison et al., 2019a; Johnson et al., 2007; Klempel et al., 2013; Kraus et al., 2019; Moro et al., 2016; Pinto et al., 2019; Stekovic et al., 2019; Stote et al., 2007; Sundfør et al., 2018; Sutton et al., 2018; Trepanowski et al., 2017; Treviño-Villarreal et al., 2018; Varady et al., 2009)
High-density lipoproteins	↑	↑, ↔	↑, ↓, ↔	↑, ↔	↑, ↔, ↓	-	(Antoni et al., 2018; Catenacci et al., 2016; Harvie et al., 2011, 2013; Headland et al., 2018; Heilbronn et al., 2005a; Hoddy et al., 2014; Hutchison et al., 2019a; Johnson et al., 2007; Klempel et al., 2013; Kraus et al., 2019; Moro et al., 2016; Pinto et al., 2019; Stekovic et al., 2019; Stote et al., 2007; Sundfør et al., 2018; Sutton et al., 2018; Trepanowski et al., 2017; Treviño-Villarreal et al., 2018; Varady et al., 2009)
Hormones
Leptin	↓	↓, ↔	↓	↓	↓,↔	↔	(Bhutani et al., 2013; Catenacci et al., 2016; Eitan et al., 2017; Halberg et al., 2005; Harvie et al., 2011, 2013; Hoddy et al., 2016; Johnson et al., 2007; Meydani et al., 2016; Moro et al., 2016; Pinto et al., 2019; Sutton et al., 2018; Varady et al., 2013)
Triiodothyronine	↓	↓, ↔	-	-	↓	-	(Moro et al., 2016; Ravussin et al., 2015; Soeters et al., 2009; Stekovic et al., 2019)
Thyroid-stimulating hormone	↔	↔	-	-	↔	-	(Moro et al., 2016; Ravussin et al., 2015; Soeters et al., 2009; Stekovic et al., 2019)
Markers of inflammation	↓	↓, ↔	↓, ↔	↓, ↔	↓, ↔	↓	(Antoni et al., 2018; Bhutani et al., 2013; Fontana et al., 2008; Halberg et al., 2005; Harvie et al., 2011, 2013; Hutchison et al., 2019a; Johnson et al., 2007; Meydani et al., 2016; Moro et al., 2016; Ravussin et al., 2015; Soeters et al., 2009; Stekovic et al., 2019; Sundfør et al., 2018; Sutton et al., 2018; Trepanowski et al., 2017; Varady et al., 2009; 2013)
Growth factors, cortisol and bone mineral density
Insulin-like growth factor-1	↔	-	-	↔	↓	↓	(Fontana et al., 2008, 2016a, 2016b; Harvie et al., 2011, 2013; Moro et al., 2016)
Cortisol	↔	↔	-	-	↓, ↔	-	(Fontana et al., 2016b; Moro et al., 2016; Soeters et al., 2009; Stote et al., 2007; Sutton et al., 2018)
Bone mineral density	↓	↔	-	-	-	-	(Stekovic et al., 2019; Villareal et al., 2016)
Physical performance
Maximal oxygen uptake	↑	-	-	-	-	-	(Racette et al., 2017)
Strength	↔	-	-	-	-	-	(Racette et al., 2017)

“↑” indicates increase; “↓” indicates decrease; “↔” indicates no change; “-” indicates not investigated.