Table 1. Mask-wearing and physical distancing, controlling for baseline variables.

All regressions include an indicator for each control-intervention pair and baseline symptom rates. The analyses in the top panel control for baseline rates of proper mask-wearing, and the analyses in the bottom panel control for baseline rates of physical distancing. “Baseline symptom rate” is defined as the rate of surveyed individuals in a village who report symptoms coinciding with the WHO definition of a probable COVID-19 case. We assume that (i) all reported symptoms were acute onset, (ii) all people live or work in an area with a high risk of transmission of virus, and (iii) all people have been a contact of a probable or confirmed case of COVID-19 or are linked to a COVID-19 cluster. “No active promotion” refers to any time that surveillance was conducted while promotion was not actively occurring (regardless of the week of the intervention). This excludes surveillance during the Friday Jumma Prayers in the mosque, when promoters were present and actively encouraged mask-wearing. “Other locations” include tea stalls, at the entrance of the restaurant as patrons enter, and the main road to enter the village. “Surgical villages” refer to all treatment villages that received surgical masks as part of the intervention and their control pairs. “Cloth villages” refer to all treatment villages that received cloth masks as part of the intervention and their control pairs. The surgical and cloth subsamples include surveillance from all available locations, equivalent to the column labeled “Full” but run separately for each subgroup. Of the 572 villages included in the analysis sample, we exclude an additional village and its pair in the mosque and market subsamples and two villages and their pairs in the other location subsample because we did not observe them in the baseline period before the intervention. There are 190 treatment villages that received surgical masks as part of the intervention and 96 treatment villages that received cloth masks. Standard errors are in parentheses.

Parameter	Full	No active promotion	Mosques	Markets	Other locations	Surgical mask villages	Cloth mask villages
Proper mask-wearing
Intervention coefficient	0.288*** (0.012)	0.279*** (0.011)	0.370*** (0.016)	0.287*** (0.012)	0.251*** (0.012)	0.301*** (0.015)	0.256*** (0.019)
Physical distancing
Intervention coefficient	0.051*** (0.005)	0.056*** (0.005)	0.000 (0.000)	0.074*** (0.007)	0.068*** (0.006)	0.054*** (0.006)	0.044*** (0.011)
N villages	572	572	570	570	568	380	192

***Significant at the 1% level.

**Significant at the 5% level.

*Significant at the 10% level.