Overview of emulsification techniques and bioactive compounds used for the production of emulsion-based systems for the elaboration of active films.

Technique	Dispersed phase	Continuous phase	Emulsifier	Bioactive compounds	Droplet size distribution (nm)	Polydispersity index (—)	Viscosity (mPa s)	Ref.
Rotor–stator (Ultra-Turrax) + Microfluidizer	Thymol-EOa, lemongrass-EO or sage-EO (1% v/v)	Sodium alginate solution (3% w/v)	Tween 80 (3% v/v)	Thymol-EO, lemongrass-EO, sage-EO	20–190	0.52–0.65	452–616	Acevedo-Fani et al.107
Rotor/stator (Ultra-Turrax)	Cinnamaldehyde (2% w/w)	Ultrapure water	Tween 80 (1.5% w/w)	Cinnamaldehyde	20–500	0.22–0.30	—	Otoni et al.70
Servodyne mixer	Carvacrol (0.67% w/w)	Isolated soy protein solution (10% w/w)	Tween 60 (0.5% w/w) Acetema (1% w/w)	Carvacrol	117	0.41	—	Otoni et al.108
Servodyne mixer	Cinnamaldehyde	Isolated soy protein solution (10% w/w)	Tween 60 (0.5% w/w) Acetem (1% w/w)	Cinnamaldehyde	112	0.57	—	Otoni et al.108
Ultrasonicator	Clove bud-EO	Double-distilled water	Tween 80 (3% w/w)	Clove bud-EO	250.4	0.16	—	Otoni et al.70
Ultrasonicator	Oregano-EO	Double-distilled water	Tween 80 (3% w/w)	Oregano-EO	180.6	0.22	—	Otoni et al.108
Spontaneous emulsification (SE)	MCTb (75% w/w) + thymol-EO (25% w/w)	Milli-Q ultrapure water	Tween 80 (10% w/w)	Thymol-EO	54.1	0.2	—	Robledo et al.111
Ultrasonic emulsification (US)	MCT (75% w/w) + thymol (25% w/w)	Milli-Q ultrapure water	Tween 80 (10% w/w)	Thymol	132.4	0.26	—	Robledo et al.111
SE + US	MCT (75% w/w) + thymol (25% w/w)	Milli-Q ultrapure water	Tween 80 (10% w/w)	Thymol	144.3–131.8	0.20–0.26	—	Robledo et al.111
Ultrasonic emulsification	(10% w/w) Thymus daenensis-EO (cultivated and wild)	(10% w/w) tween 80 in water + (0.5% w/w) lecithin as co-emulsifier	(10% w/w) tween 80 + (0.5% w/w) lecithin	Thymus daenensis-EO	223.5–274.7	0.05–0.07	—	Moghimi et al.115
Ultrasonic emulsification	Ginger-EO	Distilled water	Tween 80	Ginger-EO	20–100	0.22	—	Noori et al.132
Ultra-turrax/microfluidizer	Mixture of Oregano-EO and tween 80	Sodium alginate and mandarin fiber water	Tween 80 (2.5% w/w) + sodium alginate (2.0% w/w) + mandarin fiber (0.5% w/w)	Oregano-EO	169–337	—	265–366	Artiga-Artigas et al.133
Ultra-turrax/high pressure homogenization	Carvacrol-EO and sunflower oil	Distilled water	Tween 20 + glycerol monooleate/whey protein isolates	Carvacrol-EO	60–165	0.24–0.42	—	Tastan et al.134
Ultra-turrax/ultrasonic homogenizer	Nettle-EO	Distilled water + tween 40 (20% w/w) + glycerol plasticizer (15% w/w) + jujube gum	Tween 40 (20% w/w) + glycerol (15% w/w) and jujube gum	Nettle-EO	63.1–240.1	0.21–0.59	1.53–2.27	Gharibzahedi and Mohammadnabi135
Spontaneous emulsification	Cinnamaldehyde, MCT, and tween 80	Distilled water	Tween 80 (7.5% w/w)	Cinnamaldehyde	—	—	—	Chen et al.110
Ultrasonic emulsification	Eucalyptus oil	Water	Tween 80 + tween 20	Eucalyptus oil	9.4	0.12	—	Sugumar et al.136
Ultra-turrax	0.8 g L−1 of span 80 and 2 g L−1 of α-tocopherol	10 g L−1 of glycerol, 4.2 g L−1 of tween® 80	Span 80 (0.8 g L−1) + 4.2 g L−1 of tween 80	α-Tocopherol	190	0.12	—	Zambrano-Zaragoza et al.137
Thin-film hydration and sonication method	Nanoliposomes/Nettle extract	Distilled water	Lecithin	Nettle (Urtica dioica L.) extra	122–136	0.26–0.28	—	Haghju et al.112
Ultra-turrax/ultrasonic/rotary evaporator	Sunflower oil and ethyl acetate	(2.5% w/w) sodium caseinate and (2% w/w) glycerol	(2.5% w/w) NaCas	TiO2	40–60	—	—	Montes-de-Oca-Avalos et al.116
Emulsion-ionic gelation technique	Citrus-EO	Chitosan solution (1% w/v)	Tween 80 (0.3% v/v)	Citrus-EO	269–428	0.35–0.65	—	Wu et al.138
Film hydration method	Chloroform	Phosphate buffer	Soybean lecithin	Nisin	140.4–516.1	0.14–0.27	—	Boelter and Brandelli113

^aEssential oil.

^bMedium chain triglyceride.