Table 2.
Effects of a high fructose dietary intake on major organs.
| Organs | Mediators | Metabolic effects | Clinical manifestation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Adipose tissue | FFA UA | ↑ROS ↑Inflammatory cytokines ↑FFA uptake ↑Lipid accumulation ↑Adiponectin secretion ↑Autophagy ↓Insulin sensitivity↓Glucose uptake ↓Leptin sensitivity ↓Oxygen availability |
Inflammation Endothelial dysfunction |
| Brain | FFA UA MG | ↑ROS ↑Inflammation cytokine ↓Insulin sensitivity ↓Leptin sensitivity ↑Food intake |
Increase of appetite Psychological stress |
| Heart/vessels | FFA UA | ↑ROS ↑ FFA uptake ↑Vascular tone ↓Vascular vasodilation ↑Blood pressure ↓Insulin sensitivity ↓Glucose consumption ↑Advanced glycation end products |
Plaque formation Hypertrophy Endothelial dysfunction Vascular stiffness |
| Intestine | UA | ↑Endotoxins ↑Bacterial composition disturbance ↑Dysregulation of tight junction protein ↓Insulin sensitivity |
Increased intestinal permeability |
| Kidney | UA MG | ↑ROS ↑Inflammatory cytokines ↑Dysregulation of renal organic ion transporters ↑Urine sodium retention ↑NO production ↓Insulin sensitivity ↓UA clearance |
CKD Endothelial dysfunction |
| Liver | Lactate FFA Ceramide UA MG | ↑Gluconeogenesis ↑Glucose export ↑De novo lipogenesis ↑ROS ↑Inflammatory cytokines ↑Lipid accumulation ↑VLDL-secretion ↑Mitochondrial dysfunction ↓Insulin sensitivity ↓Glucose consumption ↓Glucose uptake ↓Oxygen availability |
Steatosis NAFLD Fibrogenesis Endothelial dysfunction |
| Pancreatic islet | Glucose FFA UA | ↑Inflammatory cytokines↑Apoptosis ↑Endoplasmic reticulum stress ↓Insulin sensitivity ↓Leptin sensitivity |
Glucose intolerance Increased β-cell mass Irregular insulin secretion |
| Skeletal muscle | Lactate FFA Ceramide UA | ↑ROS ↑Inflammatory cytokines ↑FFA uptake ↑Lipid accumulation ↑Autophagy ↓Insulin sensitivity ↓Glucose uptake ↓Oxygen availability |
Inflammation response Endothelial dysfunction |
CKD, Chronic Kidney Disease; FFA, free fatty acid; MG, methylglyoxal; NAFLD, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease; ROS, reactive oxygen species; UA, uric acid; VLDL, Very Low-Density Lipoprotein.
Modified from Zhang et al. (8).