Table 5.
Factors associated with the risk perception of COVID-19 infection.
| Odds ratio | 95% Confidence Interval | p-value | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sociodemographic characteristics | |||
| Age | 0.98 | 0.98–0.98 | <0.001 |
| Gender (SA) | |||
| Women (reference) | 1.00 | NA | NA |
| Men | 1.03 | 0.97–1.09 | 0.30 |
| Region (SA) | |||
| Hokkaido and Tohoku | 0.90 | 0.83–0.98 | <0.05 |
| Kanto (reference) | 1.00 | NA | NA |
| Chubu | 0.87 | 0.81–0.94 | <0.001 |
| Kansai | 1.01 | 0.94–1.09 | 0.78 |
| Chugoku and Shikoku | 0.88 | 0.81–0.97 | <0.01 |
| Kyusyu and Okinawa | 0.91 | 0.84–0.99 | <0.05 |
| Highest educational level (SA) | 1.00 | 0.98–1.03 | 0.84 |
| Occupation type (SA) | |||
| Agriculture, forestry and fisheries | 0.84 | 0.61–1.15 | 0.27 |
| Construction | 1.17 | 0.98–1.39 | 0.08 |
| Manufacturing | 1.11 | 0.98–1.26 | 0.09 |
| Information and communications | 0.86 | 0.73–1.02 | 0.09 |
| Transportation and postal services | 1.11 | 0.93–1.33 | 0.23 |
| Wholesale and retail trade | 0.99 | 0.87–1.14 | 0.91 |
| Finance and insurance | 1.05 | 0.87–1.26 | 0.62 |
| Real estate and goods rental and leasing | 1.38 | 1.11–1.73 | <0.01 |
| Scientific research, professional and technical services | 1.07 | 0.85–1.35 | 0.54 |
| Accommodations, food and beverage services | 0.88 | 0.73–1.06 | 0.18 |
| Living-related and personal services and amusement services | 1.02 | 0.83–1.26 | 0.84 |
| Education and learning support | 1.10 | 0.94–1.29 | 0.24 |
| Medical healthcare and welfare (reference) | 1.00 | NA | NA |
| Combined services | 1.20 | 0.90–1.60 | 0.22 |
| Services (not elsewhere classified) | 1.04 | 0.91–1.18 | 0.56 |
| Public service (not elsewhere classified) | 1.05 | 0.89–1.25 | 0.56 |
| Students | 0.75 | 0.61–0.91 | <0.01 |
| Homemaker | 0.80 | 0.71–0.90 | <0.001 |
| Others | 0.76 | 0.67–0.86 | <0.001 |
| Annual household income in 2020 (million JPY; thousand USD) (SA) | 0.98 | 0.97–0.99 | <0.001 |
| Household size including respondent (SA) | 1.02 | 1.00–1.05 | <0.05 |
| Marital size (SA) | |||
| Married (including de facto marriage) (reference) | 1.00 | NA | NA |
| Not married (without partner) | 0.88 | 0.82–0.95 | <0.01 |
| Not married (with a partner) | 0.95 | 0.84–1.06 | 0.36 |
| Widowed | 0.92 | 0.81–1.06 | 0.24 |
| Divorced | 0.86 | 0.78–0.96 | <0.01 |
| To what extent did the COVID-19 pandemic affect your life, within the past year? (SA) | |||
| Not at all (reference) | 1.00 | NA | NA |
| Not much | 1.63 | 1.45–1.83 | <0.001 |
| Somewhat | 2.04 | 1.82–2.28 | <0.001 |
| Quite a lot | 2.41 | 2.13–2.72 | <0.001 |
| Health-related characteristics, including health literacy | |||
| Self-reported health status (SA) | |||
| Very good | 0.77 | 0.72–0.83 | <0.001 |
| Good | 0.98 | 0.92–1.04 | 0.51 |
| Fair (reference) | 1.00 | NA | NA |
| Poor | 1.25 | 1.15–1.37 | <0.001 |
| Very poor | 1.25 | 1.05–1.48 | <0.05 |
| Have you ever received a COVID-19 test? (MA) | |||
| Yes – PCR test | 0.98 | 0.88–1.10 | 0.75 |
| Yes – antigen test | 1.43 | 1.12–1.82 | <0.01 |
| Yes – antibody testing | 0.95 | 0.74–1.22 | 0.70 |
| Yes – unsure about either of the three | 1.15 | 0.93–1.42 | 0.20 |
| Presence of underlying diseases (e.g. diabetes, heart failure, respiratory disease, COPD, etc., or on dialysis, or using immunosuppressive or anticancer drugs) (SA) | 0.99 | 0.92–1.07 | 0.89 |
| Do you receive an influenza vaccine? (SA) | |||
| Every year (reference) | 1.00 | NA | NA |
| Every few years | 1.01 | 0.94–1.08 | 0.78 |
| Rarely or never | 0.81 | 0.76–0.86 | <0.001 |
| Did you receive on routine immunization? (SA) | |||
| All (reference) | 1.00 | NA | NA |
| Partially | 1.02 | 0.94–1.11 | 0.61 |
| None | 0.91 | 0.84–0.98 | <0.05 |
| Not sure | 0.83 | 0.76–0.89 | <0.001 |
| Has anyone close to you ever been infected with COVID-19? (MA) | |||
| Family or friends | 1.22 | 1.06–1.41 | <0.01 |
| Colleagues at work | 1.49 | 1.32–1.68 | <0.001 |
| How confident are you filling out medical forms by yourself?” (health literacy) (SA) | |||
| Not at all | 1.17 | 0.94–1.45 | 0.15 |
| A little bit | 1.31 | 1.15–1.48 | <0.001 |
| Somewhat (reference) | 1.00 | NA | NA |
| Extremely | 0.87 | 0.82–0.93 | <0.001 |
| Quite a bit | 0.83 | 0.77–0.90 | <0.001 |
| Vaccine-related characteristics | |||
| How do you think the disadvantages of the COVID-19 vaccine are? (SA) – perceived risks of a COVID-19 vaccine | |||
| Very small | 0.65 | 0.58–0.72 | <0.001 |
| Small | 0.82 | 0.77–0.88 | <0.001 |
| Medium (reference) | 1.00 | NA | NA |
| Large | 1.13 | 1.04–1.23 | <0.01 |
| Very large | 0.89 | 0.74–1.07 | 0.20 |
| How do you feel are the benefits of the COVID-19 vaccine? (SA) – perceived benefits of a COVID-19 vaccine | |||
| Very small | 0.87 | 0.72–1.05 | 0.14 |
| Small | 1.13 | 1.01–1.26 | <0.05 |
| Medium (reference) | 1.00 | NA | NA |
| Large | 1.02 | 0.95–1.10 | 0.54 |
| Very large | 0.87 | 0.78–0.98 | <0.05 |
| If others have been vaccinated against COVID-19, do you think you should be vaccinated as well? (SA) – perceived norms about a COVID-19 vaccine | |||
| Strongly disagree | 0.54 | 0.46–0.64 | <0.001 |
| Disagree | 0.71 | 0.65–0.78 | <0.001 |
| Neither agree nor disagree (reference) | 1.00 | NA | NA |
| Agree | 1.09 | 1.02–1.17 | <0.01 |
| Strongly agree | 1.38 | 1.24–1.53 | <0.001 |
| Do you trust the public authorities to approve vaccines for COVID-19? (SA) – trusts about COVID-19 vaccine | |||
| Strongly distrust | 1.15 | 0.95–1.39 | 0.16 |
| Distrust | 1.19 | 1.08–1.31 | <0.001 |
| Neither agree nor disagree (reference) | 1.00 | NA | NA |
| Trust | 0.95 | 0.89–1.01 | 0.12 |
| Strongly trust | 0.86 | 0.71–1.03 | 0.10 |
| Do you trust your healthcare provider about vaccination against COVID-19? (SA) – trusts about COVID-19 vaccine | |||
| Strongly distrust | 1.02 | 0.79–1.33 | 0.85 |
| Distrust | 1.10 | 0.96–1.26 | 0.17 |
| Neither agree nor disagree (reference) | 1.00 | NA | NA |
| Trust | 0.94 | 0.87–1.01 | 0.08 |
| Strongly trust | 1.12 | 0.97–1.29 | 0.12 |
| Information sources (MA) | |||
| Healthcare workers | 1.26 | 1.17–1.35 | <0.001 |
| Books and Magazines | 1.14 | 1.03–1.26 | <0.05 |
| The Internet | 0.91 | 0.86–0.95 | <0.001 |
| Medical information sites | 1.38 | 1.18–1.62 | <0.001 |
| Governments | 0.94 | 0.88–0.99 | <0.05 |
| Family and friends | 0.85 | 0.80–0.90 | <0.001 |
| Other companies | 0.75 | 0.64–0.88 | <0.01 |
| Trust levels in information sources (MA) | |||
| Healthcare workers | 1.16 | 1.10–1.22 | <0.001 |
| Books and Magazines | 1.07 | 1.01–1.13 | <0.05 |
| Television, radio and newspaper | 0.85 | 0.80–0.90 | <0.001 |
| Governments | 0.90 | 0.85–0.95 | <0.001 |
| Other companies | 1.06 | 1.01–1.11 | <0.05 |
SA: Single answer, MA: Multiple answer, Healthcare workers: Physicians, nurses, pharmacists, veterinarians, and dentists, the Internet: Internet news sites and search engines (Google, Yahoo, etc.), Governments: Local authorities such as prefectures and municipalities, government, Medical task-force advising the government, known as the Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting (re-established as Novel Coronavirus Infectious Disease Control Subcommittee in July 2020). Age, highest educational level, annual household income in 2020, household size including respondent were treated as continuous variables.