Table 5.

The effects of NMs on hepatocytes

NMs	Characterization	Cell type	Cellular responses	References
Ag NPs	20 nm, spherical	Hepa 1–6 cell line	Oxidative stress generation, mtROS production, GSH depletion, HO-1 expression, and initiation of caspases 3 and 7 mediated apoptotic cell death	[105]
Ag NPs	20 nm	C3A cell line	Cellular uptake, inflammatory mediator expression, increase in IL-8/macrophage inflammatory protein 2, IL-1RI, and TNF-α expression	[170]
Au NPs	10–60 nm, citrate-stabilization, monodisperse	HepG2 cell line	protein carbonylation, lipid peroxidation, DNA damage, overproduction of free radicals and ROS	[171]
Cu NPs	100 ±35 nm, spherical and aggregation	Primary hepatocytes of E.coioides	Intracellular ROS generation, antioxidative enzymatic defense systems alteration, induction of apoptosis and necrosis	[172]
CuO NPs	60 nm, dissolution (>10%)	Hepa 1–6 cell line	Oxidative stress generation, mtROS production, GSH depletion, HO-1 expression, the release of TNF-α, and the initiation of caspases 3 and 7 mediated apoptotic cell death	[105]
Gd2O3	43.8 ± 15.8 nm, cubic	Hepa 1–6 cell line	Cellular uptake, caspases 3/7 activation, induction of apoptotic cell death	[7]
Mn2O3	51.5 ± 7.3, tetragonal	Hepa 1–6 cell line	Cellular uptake, cellular shrinking, caspases 3/7 activation, induction of apoptotic cell death	[7]
TiO2 NPs	50 nm, spherical or rod-like crystal structure	Primary rat hepatocytes	Oxidative stress, intracellular ROS, morphological changes in mitochondria and substantial loss in the fusion process, disruption of the mitochondrial dynamics	[173]
V2O5 NPs	400 nm, higher dissolution (>50%)	Hepa 1–6 cell line	Dissolved ions-induced caspases 3/7 mediated apoptosis	[105]
ZnO NPs	47–106 nm, spherical/rhomboid/rod-shaped	Catfish primary hepatocytes, HepG2 cell line	Cellular uptake, ROS-induced cell death, and damages to the cell and mitochondrial membranes	[174]
ZnO NPs	50 nm, dissolution (>10%)	Hepa 1–6 cell line	Oxidative stress generation, mtROS production, GSH depletion, HO-1 expression, and the initiation of caspases 3 and 7 mediated apoptotic cell death	[105]
Fe–TA NPs	3–5 nm, tannic complexes	HepG2 cell line	Cellular uptake, autophagosomes formation, increase in LC3 expression, induction in autophagic cell death	[178]
SWCNTs	1000–2000 nm with a diameter range of 1.0–6.0 nm	HepG2 cell line	Elevation in ROS level, reduction in cellular metabolic activity, perturbation of cell cycle, induction of apoptotic cell death	[181]
MWCNTs	D: 5–35 L:700–3000; D: 6–20 L: 700–4000	C3A and primary hepatocyte	Cellular uptake, IL-8 production, cytotoxicity	[182]
GO	T: 6 nm; H: 20 nm; S:40 nm	HepG2 cell line	Cellular uptake, oxidative stress generation, NADPH oxidase-dependent ROS formation, high deregulation of antioxidant/DNA repair/apoptosis-related genes, DNA damage, TGFβ1 mediated signaling, cytotoxicity	[184]
rGO	T: 7 nm; H: 23 nm; S:40 nm	HepG2 cell line	DNA damage, oxidative stress, ROS generation, induction of innate immune response through TLR4–NFkB pathway, apoptosis	[184]
CNC	~280 nm	Hepa 1–6 cell line	Cellular uptake through clathrin-mediated endocytosis, mtROS generation, caspases 3/7 activation, apoptosis	[109]