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. 2021 Sep 21;11(49):31098–31123. doi: 10.1039/d1ra04480j

Properties of emerging and commonly used PET radionuclides.

Element Isotope Nuclear properties Production conditions
Half-life Mode of decay (%) Avg. β+ energy, keV β+ endpoint energy, keV (%) Principal γ energies, keV (Abs. %) Major nuclear reactions Beam energy, MeV Target Max. reported yield, MBq (μA h)−1
Arsenic (As) 72 26.0 h β+ (87.8) 1117 2500 (64.2) 3334 (16.3) 511 (176.4), 630 (8.1), 834 (81.0), 1464 (1.13) 72Ge(p,n)72As 18–8 Natural or enriched GeO2 on Cu or Nb, Ge foil 90
EC (12.2) 1528
Bromine (Br) 75 96.7 min β+ (75.0) 773, 708, 904 1753 (53.0), 1612 (4.9), 2040 (4.0) 511 (149.1),141 (6.6), 287 (88.0), 428 (4.4) 76Se(p,2n)75Br 24–21.5 Enriched Se, enriched selenides (i.e. Ag2Se, CuAgSe, Cu2Se, PbSe) 1480
EC (25.0)
76 16.2 h β+ (55.0) 1532, 375, 1800 3382 (25.8), 871 (6.3), 3941 (6.0) 511 (109), 559 (74.0), 657 (15.9), 1854 (147) 76Se(p,n)76Br 16–8 Enriched Se, enriched selenides (i.e. Cu2Se) 70
EC (45.0)
Copper (Cu) 60 23.7 min β+ (93.0) 872, 1325, 840 1982 (49.0), 2947 (15.0), 1912 (11.6) 511 (185.0), 826 (21.7), 1333 (88.0), 1792 (45.4) 60Ni(p,n)60Cu 14.7 Natural or enriched Ni on Au 2146
EC (7.0)
61 3.3 h β+ (61.0) 524, 399 1216 (51.0), 933 (5.8) 511 (123.0), 67 (4.2), 282 (12.2), 656 (10.8) 61Ni(p,n)61Cu 14.7–9 Enriched Ni on Au 281
EC (39.0) 64Zn(p,α)61Cu 17.6–11.7 Natural or enriched Zn 13
64 12.7 h β+ (17.6) 278 653 (17.6) 511 (35.2), 1346 (0.5) 64Ni(p,n)64Cu 15–10 Enriched Ni on Au or Rh 5883
β (38.5)
EC (43.9)
Cobalt (Co) 55 17.5 h β+ (76.0) 649, 436 1499 (46.0), 1021 (25.6) 511 (152.0), 477 (20.2), 931 (75.0), 1409 (16.9) 56Fe(p,2n)55Co 23.5–16 Enriched Fe 236
EC (24.0) 58Ni(p,α)55Co 16–15 Enriched Ni, enriched Ni on Ag or Au
Gallium (Ga) 66 9.5 h β+ (57.0) 1904, 397 4153 (51.0), 924 (3.7) 511 (114.0), 834 (5.9), 1039 (37.0), 2752 (22.7) 66Zn(p,n)66Ga 15–6 Natural or enriched Zn on Au or Ag 700
EC (43.0)
68 67.7 min β+ (88.9) 836, 353 1899 (87.7), 822 (1.2) 511 (177.8), 1077 (3.2), 1261 (0.1), 1883 (0.1) 68Zn(p,n)68Ga 14–11 Enriched Zn, enriched Zn on Al, Au or Ag 1380
EC (11.1)
Iodine(i) 124 4.2 d β+ (22.7) 687, 975 1535 (11.7), 2138 (10.7) 511 (45.0), 603 (62.9), 723 (10.4), 1691 (11.2) 124,125Te(p,xn)124I 22–5 Natural or enriched Te, natural or enriched TeO2 111
EC (77.3)
Manganese (Mn) 52g 5.6 d β+ (29.4) 242 575 (29.4) 511 (58.8), 744 (90.0), 936 (94.5), 1434 (100.0) 52Cr(p,n)52gMn 20–10 Natural Cr, natural Cr on Cu or Ag 9.6
EC (70.6)
Niobium (Nb) 90 14.6 h β+ (53.0) 662, 726 1500 (51.0), 1641 (2.0) 511 (102.0), 142 (66.8), 1129 (92.7), 2319 (82.0) 90,91Zr(p,xn)90Nb 19–7 Natural Zr, enriched ZrO2 on Cu 596
EC (47.0)
Scandium (Sc) 44g 4.0 h β+ (94.3) 632 1474 (94.3) 511 (188.5), 1157 (99.9), 1499 (0.9) 44Ca(p,n)44g,mSc 18–6 Natural or enriched Ca, enriched CaO3 50
EC (5.7)
Technetium (Tc) 94m 52 min β+ (70.2) 1094, 639, 405 2439 (67.6), 1446 (0.9), 917 (0.9) 511 (140.3), 871 (94.2) 94Mo(p,n)94mTc 13–6 Natural Mo, enriched MoO3 111
EC (29.8)
Titanium (Ti) 45 184.8 min β+ (84.8) 439 1040 (84.8) 511 (169.6), 720 (0.2), 1408 (0.1) 45Sc(p,n)45Ti 16–8 Natural Sc 422
EC (15.2)
Yttrium (Y) 86g 14.7 h β+ (31.9) 535, 681, 883 1221 (11.9), 1545 (5.6), 1988 (3.6) 511 (64.0), 628 (32.6), 1077 (82.5), 1153 (30.5) 86Sr(p,n)86gY 15.1–11 Enriched SrCO3 or SrO 166
EC (68.2)
Zinc (Zn) 63 38.5 min β+ (92.7) 1042, 733, 600 2345 (80.3), 1675 (7.0), 1382 (4.9) 511 (185.5), 670 (8.2), 962 (6.5), 1412 (0.8) 63Cu(p,n)63Zn 16–6 Natural or enriched Cu 2470
EC (7.3)
Zirconium (Zr) 89 78.4 h β+ (22.7) 396 902 (22.7) 511 (45.5), 909 (99.0), 1713 (0.7), 1745 (0.1) 89Y(p,n)89Zr 14–9 Natural Y, natural Y2O3 on Cu 58
EC (77.3)