Table 2.

Summary of physiological end points from continuous CR and intermittent fasting strategies in humans

	Continuous CR	TRF	ADF and mADF
Primary aging
Mass-specific energy expenditure	↓	↔	↔/↓a
Oxidative stress	↓	↓	?
Core temperature	↓	↔	↔
Mitochondrial efficiency	↑	?	?
Thyroid activity	↓	?	↓
Secondary aging
Body composition
BMI	↓	↓	↓
Fat mass	↓	↓	↓
Fat-free mass	↓	↔	↓
Visceral adipose tissue	↓	↓	↓
Cardiometabolic risk markers
Fasting insulin and insulin area under the curve	↓	↓	↓
Fasting glucose	↓	↔	↓
Blood pressure	↓	↓	↓
Fasting triglycerides	↓	↑	↓
Low-density lipoprotein	↓	↔	↑/↓a
High-density lipoprotein	↑	↔	↔/↓a
Leptin	↓	↓	↔
Inflammation	↓	↔	↔

^aConflicting results published.

Abbreviations: ADF, alternate-day fasting; BMI, body mass index; CR, calorie restriction; mADF, modified ADF; TRF, time-restricted feeding.