Table 3.
Vitamin-based biomarkers for AD.
| Ref | Study Cohort and Design | Analysis Performed | Results | Cohort of Variation | Biomarker/s Proposed |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Glasø et al., 2004 [338] | AD (n = 20), HC (n = 18) | Analysis on serum and blood | ↓ Blood thiamine ↓ Blood TDP |
AD | Vit B1 |
| dos Santos et al., 2020 [344] | AD (n = 60), HC (n = 60) | Complete blood count and Vit B12 levels assessment | ↓ Vit B12 | AD | Vit B12 |
| Lanyau-Domínguez et al., 2020 [351] | AD (n = 43), MCI (n = 131), HC (n = 250) | Spectrophotometry and high-resolution liquid chromatography on plasma |
↓ Vit A and vit C | AD | Combination of vit A and vit C |
| Gold et al., 1995 [339] | AD (n = 17), n-AD (n = 17) | Microbiologic assay on plasma and RBC | ↓ Plasma thiamine -No correlation between RBC thiamine and AD |
AD | Vit B1 |
| Wang et al., 2018 [340] | AD (n = 90), HC (n = 90) | HPLC on whole blood samples | ↓ TDP | Female AD vs. male AD | TDP as protective factor for AD |
| D’Cunha et al., 2019 [341] | AD (n = 63), HC (n = 63) | ELISA kit to determine APOE4 on serum | ↓ Vit B2 dietary intake | AD without APOE4 genotype | Vit B2 and folate |
| Dursun et al., 2016 [346] | EOAD (n = 22), LOAD (n = 72), MCI (n = 32), HC (n = 70) | Chemiluminescent immunoassay on serum | ↓ 25(OH)D | LOAD ApoEε4 non-carriers | Vit D (in ApoEε4 allele non-carriers) |
| Ouma et al., 2018 [347] | AD (mild: n = 41, moderate: n = 35, severe: n = 32), MCI (n = 61), HC (n = 61) | Competitive radioimmunoassay on serum | ↓ 25(OH)D3 | MCI and AD | 25(OH)D3 |
| Blasko et al., 2021 [297] | Non-converting HC (n = 13), HC converting to MCI (n = 6), HC converting to AD (n = 6), MCI converting to AD (n = 8), MCI converting to HC (n = 8) and stable MCI (n = 7) | Competitive immunoassay on serum | ↓ Folate | MCI–AD converting pt | Folate |
| An et al., 2019 [342] | 2533 participants followed for an average of 2.3 y | Immunoassay on serum | ↑ Folate, vit B6, and vit B12 intake | Pt with better cognitive reserve | B vitamins and folate |
| Murdaca et al., 2021 [343] | AD (n = 108) | Machine learning approach to correlate blood vitamin levels with MMSE score | ↓ Vit D and folic acid | Pt with lower MMSE score | Combination of vit D and folic acid |
| Baldacci et al., 2020 [345] | SMC (n = 316) | Aβ-PET (n = 316, at baseline and 2 y follow-up). Lumbar puncture (n = 40 at baseline). Immunoassay on plasma (n = 79, at baseline, 1 y and 3 y follow-up) |
↓ Vit B12 | Pt with higher plasma total Tau levels | Vit B12 |
| de Leeuw et al., 2020 [188] | SCD (n = 149), MCI (n = 150). | Analysis on serum and plasma | ↑ 1,25(OH)2D3 | SCD | 1,25(OH)2D3 |
| Hooshmand et al., 2014 [348] | AD (n = 18), MCI (n = 28), SCI (n = 29) | Immunoassay on plasma, ELISA on CSF, MRI scans | ↑ 25(OH)D3
↑ 25(OH)D3 |
-Pt with higher CSF Aβ1–42 levels -Pt with greater brain volumes |
Vit D |
| Al-Amin et al., 2019 [349] | MCI (n = 54) | Analysis on serum MRtrix and NBS on MRI scans |
↓ 25(OH)D3 | Pt with reduction in total hippocampal volume and connection deficit | Vit D |
| Raszewski et al., 2015 [350] | AD (n = 33), n-AD (n = 31) | HPLC on serum | ↓ Vit A and vit E | n-AD | Combination of vit A and vit E |
Abbreviations: AD, Alzheimer’s disease; CSF, cerebrospinal fluid; ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; EOAD, early-onset AD; HC, healthy controls; HPLC, high-performance liquid chromatography; LOAD, late-onset AD; MCI, mild cognitive impairment; n-AD, non-Alzheimer’s dementia; NBS, network-based statistic; pt, patients; RBC, red blood cells; SCD, subjective cognitive decline; SCI, subjective cognitive impairment; SMC, subjective memory complaints; TDP, thiamine diphosphate; y, years; ↓, decrease; ↑, increase.