Fig. 2.

Possible mechanisms underlying the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and chemopreventive properties of red ginseng oil. Multiple external and internal stimuli triggers signal transduction cascades that converge on and rapidly activate transcription factors such as NF-κB and AP-1. Consequently, this leads to transcriptional expression of target genes such as pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and intracellular adhesion molecules involved in inflammation, cellular proliferation, neoplastic transformation, and tumor promotion. Red ginseng oil can inhibit the activation of NF-κB and AP-1 through down-regulating singling pathways. Nrf2 is a master transcription factor that regulates a wide range of phase II detoxification and antioxidant enzymes such as NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase (NQO1), heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), and glutathione S-transferase (GST). Red ginseng oil can activate Nrf2 pathway, thereby enhancing cytoprotective system, reducing the level of oxidative stress, and interfering with NF-κB and AP-1 activation.