Fig. 3.

Anti-apoptotic mechanisms of red ginseng oil. Diverse apoptotic stimuli such as cytotoxic insults, DNA-damaging agents, and irradiation trigger extrinsic and intrinsic pathways through activating of cell death receptor and caspase cascades, enhancing mitochondrial membrane permeabilization, and inducing ROS/RNS production and DNA fragmentation. Red ginseng oil exerts protective effect against apoptotic stimuli by inhibiting caspase activation, reducing mitochondrial Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, preventing DNA fragmentation, and suppressing ROS/RNS formation.