Table 3.
Logistic regression results (n = 472) – univariate and multivariable analyses.
| Severe pain intensity [OR (95%CI)] |
Severe functional limitation [OR (95%CI)] |
|||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Crude | Adjusted | Crude | Adjusted | |
| Psychological factors | ||||
| Symptoms of anxiety | 1.62 (0.93, 2.80) | - | 1.66 (1.04, 2.63) | - |
| Symptoms of depression | 2.35 (1.50, 3.68) | - | 2.38 (1.55, 3.67) | - |
| Perceived stress | 1.56 (1.02, 2.38) | - | 1.81 (1.25, 2.63) | - |
| Serious health problem | 1.03 (0.60, 1.79) | - | 0.49 (0.30, 0.80) | - |
| Hospitalisation | 0.65 (0.35, 1.19) | - | 0.72 (0.41, 1.29) | - |
| Death of a close relative | 0.63 (0.40, 0.97) | - | 0.78 (0.52, 1.16) | - |
| Severe financial difficulties | 0.80 (0.53, 1.22) | - | 0.94 (0.65, 1.37) | - |
| Forced to move to a new house | 0.63 (0.36, 1.10) | - | 0.60 (0.35, 1.03) | - |
| Divorce or separation | 1.14 (0.66, 1.96) | - | 1.09 (0.68, 1.74) | - |
| Violence | 0.76 (0.41, 1.40) | - | 0.79 (0.45, 1.39) | - |
| Physical aggression | 0.43 (0.17, 1.13) | - | 0.64 (0.25, 1.64) | - |
| Social factor | ||||
| Social isolation | 1.65 (1.08, 2.53) | - | 2.34 (1.58, 3.47) | 1.98 (1.25, 3.14) |
| Cognitive factors | ||||
| Catastrophising | 2.76 (1.75, 4.34) | 2.21 (1.30, 3.77) | 3.07 (2.09, 4.53) | 2.72 (1.75, 4.23) |
| Kinesiophobia | 6.52 (3.06, 13.90) | 3.34 (1.36, 8.24) | 3.56 (1.63, 7.91) | - |
| Maladaptive beliefs | ||||
| No real treatment for back trouble | 2.56 (1.57, 4.17) | - | 1.63 (1.02, 2.61) | - |
| Back problems will eventually stop you from working | 1.82 (1.20, 2.74) | - | 1.36 (0.94, 1.95) | - |
| Back trouble means pain for the rest of life | 1.53 (1.01, 2.31) | - | 1.48 (1.03, 2.13) | - |
| Back trouble makes everything in life worse | 1.62 (1.02, 2.55) | - | 1.52 (1.03, 2.25) | - |
| Back trouble may mean you end up in a wheelchair | 1.72 (1.14, 2.60) | - | 1.82 (1.26, 2.63) | - |
| Back trouble means long periods of time off work | 2.17 (1.39, 3.36) | - | 1.74 (1.20, 2.54) | - |
| Back trouble leads a weakness | 1.66 (1.03, 2.69) | - | 1.45 (0.97, 2.18) | - |
| Back trouble must be rested | 2.89 (1.60, 5.20) | 2.75 (1.37, 5.52) | 1.66 (1.07, 2.57) | 1.72 (1.04, 2.83) |
| Later in life back trouble gets worse | 1.09 (0.61, 1.98) | - | 1.37 (0.81, 2.31) | - |
| Tissue damage determines the level of pain | 1.73 (0.93, 3.21) | - | 1.58 (0.95, 2.62) | - |
| Pain during exercise means a damage | 1.71 (1.01, 2.89) | - | 1.22 (0.79, 1.89) | - |
| Patients with back pain should practice pain free movements | 1.73 (1.10, 2.72) | - | 1.59 (1.08, 2.34) | - |
| Learning to cope with stress promotes recovery from back pain | 0.83 (0.55, 1.26) | - | 0.90 (0.63, 1.30) | - |
| A patient with severe back pain will benefit from physical exercises | 1.41 (0.92, 2.15) | - | 0.98 (0.67, 1.43) | - |
| Mental stress can cause back pain | 1.24 (0.81, 1.88) | - | 0.86 (0.58, 1.25) | - |
| Patients with acute low back pain should perform bed rest | 1.53 (0.96, 2.44) | - | 1.44 (0.97, 2.15) | - |
| Patients should not return to work | 2.68 (1.72, 4.17) | - | 1.74 (1.20, 2.51) | - |
| Imaging of the lumbar spine are useful | 1.93 (1.04, 3.58) | - | 1.94 (1.17, 3.22) | - |
| Self-efficacy | 0.81 (0.52, 1.28) | - | 1.17 (0.78, 1.77) | - |
| Positive expectation | 0.76 (0.50, 1.15) | - | 0.77 (0.53, 1.13) | - |
Note: *The pain and functional limitation scales were dichotomised and classified as severe (values between 7 and 10) and mild/moderate (values below 7). Univariate regression analysis values were expressed as “crude”, and multivariable regression analysis values were expressed as “adjusted”. The following variables were used as covariates in the adjusted model: age, Body Mass Index, educational level, household income, health insurance, number of comorbidities, currently receiving physical therapy, taking analgesic medicines, physical activity level, and sleep quality. Values in bold represent statistically significant difference for univariate analysis (p < 0.1) and multivariable analysis (p < 0.05).