Fluid pumping capabilities of artificial cilia reported in the literature. In the table, these artificial cilia are arranged according to their length from small to large. The best ones in terms of generated absolute maximum flow speed and normalized flow speed are marked in bold and italic, respectively. (μ) MAC = (microscopic) magnetic artificial cilia.

Cilia type	Fabrication method	Cilia geometry	Actuation method	Cilia motion	Working fluid	Maximum flow speed	Beating frequency	Local Remax	Normalized flow speed	Fluid pumping mechanism
		l × w × t [μm3]				v [m s−1]	f [Hz]	ρvl/μ	δ = v/fl
		l × d [μm2]
μMAC12b	Self-assembly	20 × 3	Uniform rotating magnetic field	3D tilted conical motion	Water	3	5	0.01	0.030	3D non-reciprocal motion
μMAC8a	Tracked-etched polycarbonate membranes as templates	25 × 0.7	Uniform rotating magnetic field	3D tilted conical motion	Water	8	34	≦0.025	0.009	3D non-reciprocal motion
μMAC10a	Self-assembly	31 × 4.4	Uniform rotating magnetic field	3D tilted conical motion	Water	5	0.5	<1	0.0323	3D non-reciprocal motion
μMAC102a	Photolithography techniques	70 × 20 × 0.4	Uniform rotating magnetic field	2D non-reciprocal motion	Water	—	50	<1	—	2D non-reciprocal motion
μMAC11a	Photolithography techniques	70 × 20 × 0.4	Non-uniform rotating magnetic field	2D non-reciprocal motion	Water	130	10	<1	0.186	2D non-reciprocal motion
Electrostatic cilia6a	Micro-systems technology processing	100 × 20 × 1	AC voltage	2D non-reciprocal motion	Silicone oil	600	200	1	0.030	Inertia
μMAC104b	Two-mask lithographic process	200 × 20 × 0.07	Nearly uniform rotating magnetic field	2D non-reciprocal motion	Water	1350	62	0.09–0.6	0.109	2D non-reciprocal motion
μMAC14b	Continuous roll-pulling method	Conical shape 250	Uniform rotating magnetic field	3D tilted conical motion	Water	120	20	6	0.024	3D non-reciprocal motion
μMAC13b	Magnetic fiber drawing (self-assembly)	300	Uniform rotating magnetic field	3D tilted conical motion	Water	70	50	—	0.005	3D non-reciprocal motion
μMAC9b	Photolithography techniques	300 × 100 × 15	Uniform rotating magnetic field	2.5D non-reciprocal motion	Water	500	50	<1	0.033	2.5D non-reciprocal motion
μMAC15b	Micro-molding	350 × 50	Uniform rotating magnetic field	3D tilted conical motion	Water	260	40	15	0.018	3D non-reciprocal motion
2D metachronal μMAC138b	Micro-molding	350 × 50	Non-uniform periodical magnetic field	2D non-reciprocal motion	Water	3000	100	920	0.086	2D non-reciprocal motion + inertia + metachrony
2D metachronal μMAC20b	Micro-molding	350 × 50	Uniform rotating magnetic field	2D symmetric motion	Water	220	10	50–700	0.063	Inertia + metachrony
2D metachronal MAC85a	Hand-assembly	1000 × 550 × 100	Uniform rotating magnetic field	2D non-reciprocal motion	Glycerol	450	2.5	<0.1	0.180	2D non-reciprocal motion + metachrony
3D metachronal MAC19a	Molding	4000 × 800	Uniform rotating magnetic field	3D non-reciprocal motion	Glycerol	83	0.083	<1	0.250	3D non-reciprocal motion + metachrony
2D metachronal pneumatic metachronal cilia89a	Moulding	8000 × 1000	Pneumatically	2D non-reciprocal motion	Water	19 000	30	3480	0.079	2D non-reciprocal motion + inertia + metachrony
2D metachronal pneumatic metachronal cilia91a	Moulding	14 000 × 1000	Pneumatic-hydraulic pressure	2D non-reciprocal motion	Glycerol	500	0.25	0.04	0.143	2D non-reciprocal motion + metachrony

^aMaximum local flow above the cilia tips.

^bMaximum global flow in the channel. Note that the normalized flow speed is calculated regardless the chip geometry and the amount of cilia.