| Vat Photopolymerization (VP) |
Photopolymers like acrylate based resins, ceramics, thermoplastics, biomaterials, hydrogels (Chan et al., 2012) |
(1) High-resolution parts can be fabricated with feature sizes minimum of 0.2–20 μm |
(1) Low build volumes for ceramic structures |
Casting, prototyping, tissue scaffolds, microfluidics, dentistry, etc.
|
45
|
| Commercial machines: carbon 3D – CLIP technology, 3D systems – projet series, Formlabs Form 1&2, etc.
|
(2) SLA is relatively a fast fabrication process |
(2) Usage of support structures for complex overhangs is necessary |
|
|
(3) Less energy consumption |
(3) Final parts are not functional grade |
|
| Binder Jetting (BJ) |
Ceramics – alumina, zirconia, etc.; metals – SS, cobalt chrome, etc.;46 polymers, silica, metal–metal and metal–ceramic composites etc.
|
(1) No support structures are required for the complex overhangs |
(1) Rough surface finishing; for smoother surface, additional post processing is required |
Tissue engineering, fuel cell fabrication, robotic structures, etc.
|
47
|
| Commercial machines: Voxeljet, Exone, 3D systems-CJP, etc.
|
(2) Flexible to adapt different types of materials |
(2) Poor mechanical strengths |
|
|
(3) Large build volumes are possible |
(3) High porosity of the final parts |
|
|
(4) Color printing is possible for polymer materials |
|
|
| Material Jetting (MJ) |
Simulated ABS, polypropylene, polycaprolactone, plastic, flexible materials, ceramics, etc.
|
(1) Possibility of fabrication using multi-materials together |
(1) MJ system expensive; that may directly affect the price of the final part |
Dentistry, educational purposes, drug manufacturing, low cost antenna manufacturing, wax casting, multi-color printing |
48
|
| Commercial machines: Stratasys Polyjet, 3D systems MJM, Solidscape, etc.
|
(2) Homogenous mechanical and thermal properties |
(2) Requires additional post processing |
|
|
(3) High dimensional accuracy |
(3) Poor mechanical properties |
|
|
(4) Full color 3D printing is possible |
(4) Low durability |
|
| Material Extrusion (ME) |
Thermoplastics like ABS, PLA, nylon, etc.; clay, porcelain, concrete, etc.
|
(1) Wide range of materials which are abundantly available for very economic prices |
(1) Requires additional support structures for overhangs |
Educational, construction, architecture, prototyping, etc.
|
49
|
| Commercial machines: Ultimaker, RepRap, Stratasys, Markforged, etc.
|
(2) Most affordable system and fabrication process |
(2) Requires additional post processing for cleaning the support structures |
|
|
(3) Lead time is short |
(3) Poor surface finishing |
|
|
(4) Possible to build large volumes |
(4) Lower durability |
|
| Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) |
Plastics & polymers – nylon, TPU, glass filled nylon; metals – SS, titanium, inconel, etc.;50 ceramics – zirconia, alumina, silicon nitride,51etc.
|
(1) Highly durable parts |
(1) Tall structures are prone to damage while fabrication |
Aerospace applications, machine tools, automotive applications, medical implants, etc.
|
50
|
| Commercial machines: Arcam A2X, Q20; EOS M 280, 290; Renishaw AM250, Concept Laser – mLab, etc.
|
(2) Wide range of materials are available |
(2) Addition surface finishing is required post 3D printing process |
|
|
(3) High mechanical properties are achievable |
(3) For hollow cavities perforation is required to drain the non-sintered material |
|
|
(4) Composite materials are adaptable |
|
|
|
(5) Direct functional grade parts can be manufactured |
|
|
| Sheet Lamination (SL) |
Paper, alumina, titanium composites,52 copper |
(1) The parts are able to be printed in the whole color spectrum |
(1) Very poor durability due to the binding material degradation |
Educational, architecture prototyping, etc.
|
22, 52 and 53
|
| Commercial machines: mCor, Fabrisonic, etc.
|
(2) No state change of the materials is required in this process |
(2) Impossible to print overhang structures |
|
|
(3) Very economical process |
(3) Poor mechanical properties |
|
| Directed Energy Deposition (DED) |
Metals – cobalt chromium, SS, titanium, etc.; ceramics – alumina, zirconia, other oxides, silicon nitride, HAP, etc.
|
(1) Very high mechanical properties |
(1) Additional post processing is required to achieve high grade surface finishing |
Medical implants, machine tools, casting molds, automotive, aerospace, electronics, etc.
|
22
|
| Commercial machines: BeAM Magic, RPMI 222, 557, Optomec LENS, etc.
|
(2) Multi axial platform allows to build any kind of complex parts without support structures |
(2) Tiny features are complex to be build |
|
|
(3) Bigger volumes (several cubic feet) can be fabricated |
(3) Expensive process |
|
|
(4) Composite materials can be easily adapted in this process |
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