FIGURE 2.

Mechanisms and regulation of ALDH2 in urological cancer tumorigenesis. ALDH2 exerts its antitumor effects in urological tumors through a variety of mechanisms. ALDH2 can play a regulatory role through epigenetic modifications and some pathways, such as the Akt-Notch pathway, and it can also regulate the generation of its metabolites, including 4-HNE, MDA, and acrolein, and play an antitumor role through ferroptosis, oxidative stress, autophagy and many other pathways. The blue arrow indicates inhibition; the orange arrow indicates activation; the black arrow indicates both activation and inhibition; and the green arrow indicates mutual interaction. Abbreviations: STAT3, signal transducer and activator of transcription-3; mTOR, mammalian target of rapamycin; DNMT, DNA methyltransferase; HO-1, heme oxygenase; HDAC, histone deacetylase; ROS, reactive oxygen species; UPR, unfolded protein response; ER stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress; MHC-I, major histocompatibility complex-I; mtDNA, mitochondrial DNA; TME, tumor microenvironment.