Table 1.
List of primate malarias and the avian Plasmodium used in comparative studies
| Haemosporidian species | Natural host | Biogeographic region | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Plasmodium (Haemamoeba) gallinaceum | Galliformes | Oriental zoogeographical region | [45] |
| Plasmodium (Haemamoeba) relictum | More than 300 bird species | Worldwide distribution | [45] |
| Plasmodium (Laverania) falciparum | Homo sapiens | Worldwide Tropical regions | [3] |
| Plasmodium (Laverania) praefalciparum | Gorilla gorilla | African region (e.g., Cameroon) | [2, 73] |
| Plasmodium (Laverania) blacklocki | Gorilla gorilla | African region (Cameroon, Uganda) | [2, 73] |
| Plasmodium (Laverania) adleri | Gorilla gorilla | African region (Cameroon) | [2, 73] |
| Plasmodium (Laverania) reichenowi | Pan troglodytes | African region (e.g., Congo) | [3, 73] |
| Plasmodium (Laverania) billcollinsi | Pan troglodytes | African region (e.g., Uganda, Republic of the Congo) | [42, 73] |
| Plasmodium (Laverania) gaboni | Pan troglodytes | African region (Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Kenya, Republic of Congo, Uganda) | [44, 73, 85] |
| Plasmodium (Laverania) billbrayi | Pan troglodytes | African region (Uganda, Republic of the Congo) | [42, 73] |
| Plasmodium (Laverania) lomamiensis | Pan paniscus | African region (Democratic Republic of Congo) | [43] |
| Plasmodium (Plasmodium) malariae | Homo sapiens, Pan troglodytes | Worldwide | [3] |
| Plasmodium (Plasmodium) malariae-like | Pan troglodytes | African region (e.g., Gabon) | [3, 81] |
| Plasmodium (Plasmodium) brasilianum | Haplorhini, Simiiformes (Alouatta spp., Brachyteles sp., Cacajao sp., Callicebus sp. Lagothrix sp., sp., Mico sp., Pithecia sp., Saguinus sp., Saimiri sp.) | South America | [3, 81] |
| Plasmodium (Plasmodium) ovale curtisi | Homo sapiens, Pan troglodytes | Worldwide | [81] |
| Plasmodium (Plasmodium) ovale wallikeri | Homo sapiens, Pan troglodytes | Worldwide | [81] |
| Plasmodium (Plasmodium) gonderi | Cercocebus agilis, C. atys, Lophocebus albigena, Mandrillus leucophaeus, M. sphinx | African region | [3] |
|
Plasmodium (Plasmodium) sp. (DAJ-2004) |
Cercopithecus cephus, C. nictitans, Mandrillus sphinx | African region | [36] |
| Plasmodium (Plasmodium) hylobati | Hylobates moloch, H. muelleri | Asian region (e.g., West Malaysia) | [3] |
| Plasmodium (Plasmodium) eylesi | Hylobates lar | Asian region (e.g., Indonesia, Malaysia) | [3] |
| Plasmodium (Plasmodium) youngi | Hylobates lar | Asian region (e.g., Malaysia) | [3] |
| Plasmodium (Plasmodium) jefferyi | Hylobates lar | Asian region (e.g., Malaysia) | [3] |
| Plasmodium (Plasmodium) fragile | M. radiata, M. mulatta, Prebytis spp. | Asian region (e.g., Southern India, Sri Lanka) | [3, 50] |
| Plasmodium (Plasmodium) fieldi | Macaca arctoides, M. fascicularis, M. leonina, M. nemestrina | Asian region (e.g., Sri Lanka) | [3, 50] |
| Plasmodium (Plasmodium) simiovale | Macaca sinica | Asian region (e.g., West Malaysia, Thailand) | [3, 50] |
| Plasmodium (Plasmodium) inui | Macaca arctoides, M. cyclopis, M. fascicularis, M. leonina, M. mulatta, M. nemestrina, M. nigra, M. radiata, M. sinica, Trachypithecus cristatus, T. obscurus | Asian region (Bangladesh, Borneo, Cebu, Southwest India, Java, West Malaysia, Mindanao, Nicobar Islands, Sri Lanka, Palawan, Sulawesi, Taiwan, Thailand, Tioman, Vietnam | [3, 19, 45, 50–55, 76] |
| Plasmodium (Plasmodium) knowlesi | Macaca arctoides, M. fascicularis, M. nemestrina, Presbytis femoralis, Trachypithecus obscurus, | Asian region (Southeast) | [3, 19, 45, 50–55, 76] |
| Plasmodium (Plasmodium) coatneyi | Macaca arctoides, M. fascicularis, M. nemestrina, Trachypithecus cristatus | Asian region (Malaysia, Philippines, Cebu, Kalimantan, Palawan, Sarawak, Thailand) | [3, 19, 45, 50–55, 76] |
| Plasmodium (Plasmodium) cynomolgi | Macaca arctoides, M. fascicularis, M. leonina, M. mulatta, M. nemestrina, M. radiata, M. sinica, Semnopithecus priam, Trachypithecus cristatus | Asian region (Bangladesh, Borneo, Cambodia, Cebu, Southwest India, Java, West Malaysia, Nicobar Islands, Palawan, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand) | [3, 19, 45, 50–55, 76] |
| Plasmodium (Plasmodium) pitheci | Pongo pygmaeus | Asian region (Borneo) | [3, 30, 56] |
| Plasmodium (Plasmodium) silvaticum | Pongo pygmaeus | Asian region (Borneo) | [3, 30, 56] |
| Plasmodium (Plasmodium) schwrtzi | Pan troglodytes, Gorilla gorilla | African region (Cameroon) | [3] |
| Plasmodium (Plasmodium) simium | Alouatta caraya, A. guariba, Brachyteles arachnoides | South America (Brazil-Atlantic Forest) | [3, 20, 21] |
| Plasmodium vivax-like | Pan troglodytes, Gorilla gorilla | African region | [48] |
| Plasmodium (Plasmodium) vivax | Homo sapiens | Worldwide Tropical regions | [3] |
| Plasmodium girardi | Lemur fulvus rufus | Madagascar | [3] |
| Plasmodium lemuris | Lemur collaris | Madagascar | [3] |
| Plasmodium percygarnhami | Eulemur macaco macaco | Madagascar | [25, 60] |
| Plasmodium foleyi | Eulemur rufus | Madagascar | [60] |
| Plasmodium coulangesi | Eulemur macaco | Madagascar | [60] |
| Plasmodium bucki | Eulemur macaco | Madagascar | [60] |
| Plasmodium uilenbergi | Eulemur fulvus | Madagascar | [60] |
| Plasmodium malagasi | Propithecus verreauxi | Madagascar | [60] |
| Plasmodium sp. (haplotype A) | Hapalemur griseus griseus | Madagascar | [25] |
| Plasmodium sp. (haplotype B) | Varecia variegata | Madagascar | [25] |
| Plasmodium sp. (haplotype C) | Hapalemur griseus griseus | Madagascar | [25] |
| Plasmodium sp. (haplotype D) | Indri indri | Madagascar | [25] |
| Plasmodium sp. (haplotype E) | Eulemur macaco | Madagascar | [25] |
The parasite species that infect humans as their primary host are in bold. Those species that are part of zoonotic or anthropozoonotic (reverse zoonoses) cycles are underlined