Scheme 1.

Bioinspired membrane-based nanomodulators for targeted therapy in autoimmune diseases, virus infections and bacterial infections. After rational engineering, various bioinspired membranes can be wrapped over the inner cores, which successfully inherit the biofunctions (e.g., adhesion molecules: CD47, LFA-1 and ICAM-1; key receptors: IL-1R, TNF-αR and DR5; engineering proteins: TRAIL and other specific antibodies) of the source cells. Meanwhile the multifarious inner cores can be designed for delivering various immune modulating drugs or adjuvants. According to the desired application or the type of the diseases, specific membrane and the inner nanoparticles can be integrated for immune activation in antiviral or antibacterial therapy, and for immunosuppression in autoimmune diseases.