Table 2.
Between-Group Differences in Clinical Outcomes (Completers)
| Characteristics | HEC | WL | WLEX | p Value | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Change | % Change | Change | % Change | Change | % Change | Model 1† | Model 2‡ | |
| Anthropometry | ||||||||
| BMI (kg/m2) | −0.5 ± 1.2 | −1 ± 3 | −2.4 ± 1.6 | −7 ± 5 | −3.8 ± 1.8 | −10 ± 5 | <.0001*,#,^ | |
| Weight (kg) | −1.4 ± 3.0 | −1 ± 3 | −7.1 ± 4.7 | −7 ± 5 | −10.6 ± 4.9 | −11 ± 5 | <.0001*,#,^ | |
| WC (cm) | −2.3 ± 4.9 | −2 ± 4 | −5.6 ± 6.1 | −5 ± 5 | −8.7 ± 6.2 | −7 ± 5 | .01# | .44 |
| Clinical measures | ||||||||
| SBP (mmHg) | −4.8 ± 10.5 | −3 ± 7 | −5.6 ± 15.8 | −3 ± 11 | −1.0 ± 13.0 | −1 ± 9 | .48 | .40 |
| DBP (mmHg) | −1.3 ± 8.6 | −2 ± 12 | 0.05 ± 11.4 | 2 ± 16 | −1.3 ± 8.7 | −1 ± 12 | .41 | .55 |
| Insulin (mg/dL) | −2.0 ± 3.9 | −5 ± 35 | −4.3 ± 6.1 | −21 ± 28 | −5.5 ± 4.9 | −31 ± 27 | .02# | .59 |
| Glucose (mg/dL) | 3.0 ± 26.0 | 3 ± 20 | −1.1 ± 10.7 | −1 ± 10 | −7.7 ± 15.4 | −6 ± 12 | .29 | .23 |
| HbA1C (%) | −0.1 ± 0.6 | −0.2 ± 0.3 | −0.6 ± 0.7 | <.01# | .44 | |||
| TG (mg/dL) | −5.5 ± 49.4 | 1 ± 33 | −22.6 ± 73.0 | −6 ± 37 | −48.4 ± 73.5 | −18 ± 49 | .07 | .41 |
| Cholesterol (mg/dL) | −6.8 ± 26.9 | −2 ± 17 | 1.5 ± 38.1 | 2 ± 22 | −22.9 ± 31.1 | −12 ± 16 | .02^ | .06 |
| LDL (mg/dL) | −5.5 ± 26.4 | 0 ± 30 | 5.7 ± 35.2 | 11 ± 48 | −12.1 ± 26.5 | −9 ± 24 | .14 | .18 |
| HDL (mg/dL) | 0.05 ± 5.6 | 1 ± 12 | 0.4 ± 6.6 | 2 ± 16 | −1.1 ± 5.2 | −2 ± 11 | .34 | .48 |
| VLDL (mg/dL) | −1.3 ± 9.9 | 1 ± 33 | −4.6 ± 14.7 | −6 ± 37 | −9.7 ± 14.7 | −17 ± 50 | .07 | .43 |
| Functional measurements | ||||||||
| Single leg stance (s) | 0.5 ± 1.5 | 6 ± 23 | 0.2 ± 3.5 | 13 ± 51 | 0.6 ± 1.8 | 13 ± 49 | .79 | .94 |
| 4-m walk (s) | 0.2 ± 0.5 | 6 ± 13 | 0.3 ± 1.1 | 7 ± 25 | 0.0 ± 0.7 | 0 ± 15 | .62 | .61 |
| Chair rise (s) | −0.7 ± 1.4 | −4 ± 13 | −0.8 ± 2.0 | −6 ± 15 | −0.6 ± 2.0 | −3 ± 19 | .93 | .46 |
| Step test (s) | −1.4 ± 3.3 | −5 ± 11 | −0.2 ± 3.5 | 0 ± 12 | −2.0 ± 3.2 | −8 ± 11 | .17 | .11 |
| SPPB (total) | 0.3 ± 0.8 | 3 ± 8 | −0.1 ± 1.2 | 0 ± 14 | 0.1 ± 1.0 | 1 ± 9 | .30 | .13 |
| Body composition (DXA) | ||||||||
| Fat mass (kg) | −1.4 ± 2.6 | −3 ± 6 | −5.0 ± 3.8 | −11 ± 10 | −8.6 ± 4.3 | −19 ± 9 | <.0001*,#,^ | |
| Lean mass (kg) | 0.0 ± 1.8 | 0 ± 4 | −1.5 ± 2.1 | −3 ± 4 | −0.9 ± 1.9 | −2 ± 4 | .05* | |
| Body composition (MRI)‖ | ||||||||
| IMAT (kg) | 0.03 ± 0.05 | 9 ± 15 | 0.0 ± 0.05 | 2 ± 11 | −0.07 ± 0.07 | −15 ± 13 | <.01#,^ | .11 |
| % IMAT§ | 1.5 ± 2.5 | 0.5 ± 1.8 | −2.3 ± 2.8 | .01# | .02# | |||
| Leg SAT (kg) | −0.1 ± 0.1 | −3 ± 4 | −0.1 ± 0.2 | −6 ± 12 | −0.4 ± 0.3 | −19 ± 11 | <.01#,^ | .50 |
| Leg muscle (kg) | −0.05 ± 0.10 | −3 ± 5 | −0.04 ± 0.14 | −1 ± 7 | −0.01 ± 0.14 | −1 ± 7 | .65 | .02# |
| Abdominal AT (kg) | −0.6 ± 1.7 | −3 ± 8 | −1.9 ± 2.0 | −9 ± 9 | −3.6 ± 1.8 | −16 ± 9 | <.01# | .98 |
| Abdominal SAT (kg) | −0.5 ± 0.9 | −3 ± 6 | −1.1 ± 1.2 | −8 ± 9 | −2.2 ± 1.1 | −15 ± 7 | <.01# | .99 |
| Visceral AT (kg) | −0.1 ± 1.2 | 0 ± 23 | −0.8 ± 1.4 | −9 ± 17 | −1.4 ± 1.1 | −18 ± 13 | .03# | .95 |
Notes: BMI, body mass index; DXA = dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry; WC = waist circumference; SBP/DBP = systolic blood pressure/diastolic blood pressure; TG = triglycerides; LDL = low-density lipoprotein; HDL = high-density lipoprotein; VLDL = very-low-density lipoprotein; SPPB = Short Performance Physical Battery; IMAT = intermuscular adipose tissue; SAT = subcutaneous adipose tissue; AT = adipose tissue. Values presented are mean change ± SD and % change ± SD.
†Model 1 was performed using an ANCOVA adjusted for sex, age, and baseline, followed by pairwise comparisons.
‡Model 2 was performed using an ANCOVA adjusted for sex, age, baseline, and % weight change, followed by pairwise comparisons.
§Relative to total leg volume.
‖Sample size for MRI outcomes: HEC, n = 13; WL, n = 8; WLEX, n = 13.
*Change in WL significantly different than HEC at p ≤ . 05.
#Change in WLEX significantly different than HEC at p ≤ .05.
^Change in WL significantly different than WLEX at p ≤ .05.