Table 2.

Microbial control of black pepper parasite nematodes.

Microorganisms		Mode of action	References
Fungi	Paecliomyces lilacinus	extensively infested root-knot nematode-infested black pepper plantations where colonised 90% of female nematodes, inhibited egg hatching kept in spore suspension	Ahmad et al., 2019, Sivakumar et al., 2020, Youssef et al., 2020
	Pochonia halamydosporia	reduced the eggs hatching of RKN by 41.4% in five days, indicating that it could be used to manage root knot nematodes in spice crops	Ghahremani et al., 2019, Manzanilla-López et al., 2017
	Arthrobotrys oligospora	The fungal activity in the soil lead to a drop in nematodes count, minimizing the nematode's destruction	Liu et al., 2021, Soliman et al., 2021
	Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (VAM)	Pre-inoculating pepper vines with VAM will help to reduce the severity of M. incognita root infestation. Glomus fasciculatum had a reduction in root-knot index of 32.4%, whereas Glomus etunicalum had a reduction of 36%. In black pepper plants	Bhale et al., 2018, da Silva Campos, 2020, Nair et al., 2022, Vallejos-Torres et al., 2021
Bacteria	Bacillus subtilis	revealed the strongest inhibition on root knot nematode egg hatching by 92% where, Chitinase and protease were found to be highly linked to egg hatching suppression, while natural chemicals with thermal stability were recently identified to be important in killing J2 nematodes	Cao et al., 2019, Mazzuchelli et al., 2020
	Bacillus thuringiensis	Freshly born 2nd stage juveniles (J2) of Meloidogyne javanica were killed by B. thuringiensis culture by 80%	Leong et al., 2021, Sidhu, 2018, Khanh, 2020
	Pasteuria spp	One of the most promising bacterial biocontrol agents for many worm species because they can totally limit nematode reproduction by functioning as an ovarian parasite. It is found to be specific to M. incognita from completed its life cycle	Öztürk et al., 2020, Perrine-Walker and Le, 2021, Sidhu et al., 2021
Bacteria	Pseudomonas fluorescens	is attributed to bind the root surface with carbohydrate and lectin, competing with the host, made it a promising biocontrol agent against root knot nematode	Senthilkumar and Ananthan, 2018, Sharma et al., 2021, Azam et al., 2018
Entophytic bacteria	Serratia spp.	reduced nematode populations in soil by over 70% while simultaneously producing over 65% nematode-free plantlets	Daulagala, 2021, Maulidia et al., 2020, Nguyen et al., 2021, Tran et al., 2019, Maris et al., 2020, Munif et al., 2020
	Pseudomonads spp.
	Arthrobacter spp
	Curtobacterium spp.
	Micrococcus spp.
	Bacillus spp.