Table 1.
Excitatory electrophysiology/neuroimaging findings for animals and humans.
| References | Subjects/target | Parameters | Major findings |
|---|---|---|---|
| Tufail et al. (2010) | Mice (n = 11) | fc: 0.25 –0.5 MHz; | (1) EMG failure probability |
| Motor cortex | ISPPA: 0.075–0.229 W/cm2; | increased with shorter ISI | |
| ISPTA: 0.021–0.163 W/cm2; | |||
| PRF: 1.2–3 kHz; | |||
| DC: 19–86%; | |||
| SD: 26–333 ms | |||
| Yoo et al. (2011a) | Rabbits (n = 19) | fc: 0.69 MHz; | (1) Increased BOLD activity in |
| Motor cortex | ISPPA: 3.3, 6.4, 9.5, 12.6 W/cm2; | Motor cortex using an | |
| ISPTA: 1.6, 3.2, 4.7, 6.3 W/cm2; | ISPPA = 3.3 W/cm2 | ||
| PRF: 0.01 kHz; | |||
| DC: 50%; | |||
| SD: 500, 1,000, 1,500, 2,000 ms | |||
| Kim et al. (2013) | Rats (n = 17) | fc: 0.35 MHz; | (1) Increase in glucose at |
| Unilateral | ISPPA: 6 W/cm2; | sonication focal point | |
| Hemisphere | ISPPA: 3 W/cm2; | ||
| PRF: 1 kHz; | |||
| DC: 50%; | |||
| SD: 300 ms | |||
| Kim et al. (2014a) | Rats (n = 7) | fc: 0.35 MHz; | (1) Increase in glucose was |
| Motor cortex | ISPPA: 3 W/cm2; | smaller than the sonication | |
| ISPTA: 1.5 W/cm2; | focal point; | ||
| PRF: 1 kHz; | (2) The average delay in tail | ||
| DC: 50%; | movement was 171 (±63) ms | ||
| SD: 300 ms | during sonication onset | ||
| Kim et al. (2014b) | Rats (n = 24) | fc: 0.35 MHz; | (1) Increase in magnitude of |
| Visual area | ISPPA: 1, 3, and 5 W/cm2; | VEP at ISPPA of 3 W/cm2 and | |
| ISPTA: 0.5, 1.5, and 2.5 W/cm2; | 50% DC | ||
| PRF: 0.1 kHz; | |||
| DC: 50%; | |||
| SE: 150s | |||
| Lee et al. (2015b) | Sheep (n = 8) | fc: 0.25 MHz; | (1) Recorded MEP in hind leg |
| Sensorimotor | ISPPA: 1.4–15.5 W/cm2; | muscle contralateral to | |
| Cortex | ISPTA: 0.7–7.75 W/cm2; | sonicated hemisphere with an | |
| PRF: 0.5 kHz; | ISPPA of 6.9 W/cm2 | ||
| DC: 50%; | |||
| SD: 50–150 ms | |||
| Lee et al. (2016c) | Sheep (n = 8) | fc: 0.25 MHz; | (1) Heterogeneity in MEP and |
| Sensorimotor | ISPPA: 1.4–14.3 W/cm2; | VEP onset for each sheep with | |
| Cortex | ISPTA: 0.7–7.15 W/cm2; | an ISPPA between 2–12 W/cm2; | |
| PRF: 0.5 kHz; | (2) Each sheep had increasing | ||
| DC: 50%; | MEP and VEP intensities and | ||
| SD: 300 ms | magnitudes when ISPPA increased | ||
| Li et al. (2019) | Mice (n = 17) | fc: 2 MHz; | (1) Sonication induced action |
| Primary | ISPPA: 46 W/cm2; | potentials at sonication location | |
| somatosensory | ISPTA: 0.7 W/cm2; | ||
| cortex | PRF: 1 kHz; | ||
| DC: 30%; | |||
| SD: 300 ms | |||
| Yang et al. (2018) | Macaque (n = 2) | fc: 0.25 MHz; | (1) Similar BOLD activity |
| Somatosensory | ISPPA: 9.9 W/cm2; | patterns for FUS and tactile | |
| cortex | ISPTA: 0.42 W/cm2; | stimulation; | |
| PRF: 2 kHz; | (2) FUS activated different | ||
| DC: 50%; | network patterns than tactile | ||
| SD: 3,000 ms (10 sonications) | stimulation | ||
| Sharabi et al. (2019) | Rats: Hamaline | fc: 0.23 MHz; | (1) Sonication induced motor |
| induced (n = 5) | ISPPA: 27.2 W/cm2; | response in both normal and | |
| Sham (n = 8); | ISPTA: 0.816 W/cm2; | hamaline induced rats | |
| Rats (n = 5) | PRF: 0.03 kHz; | ||
| Oblongata | DC: 3%; | ||
| Medulla | SD: 100 ms | ||
| Yoon et al. (2019) | Sheep (n = 10) | fc: 0.25 MHz; | (1) EMG response rates were |
| Motor cortex | ISPPA: 15.8 and 18.2 W/cm2; | higher within contralateral leg | |
| Thalamus | ISPTA: 4.7, 5.5, 7.9, 9.1, 11.1, | vs. the ipsilateral leg; | |
| 12.7, 15.8, 18.2 W/cm2; | (2) The 70% DC resulted in | ||
| PRF: 0.1, 0.15, 0.16, 0.23, 0.25, | highest SEP and MEP response | ||
| 0.3, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 1, 1.4 kHz; | rates from US in motor cortex | ||
| DC: 30, 50, 70, 100%; | and thalamus; | ||
| SD: 60, 100, 140, 200 ms | (3) There was no significant difference between intensities; however, ISPPA of 15.8W/cm2 generated more responses for MEPs than the ISPPA of 18.2W/cm2; |
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| (4) The 1.4 kHz PRF resulted in highest response rate in SEPs and MEPs for US of motor cortex and thalamus |
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| Yu et al. (2021) | Rats (n = 9) | fc: 0.5 MHz; | (1) Excitatory neurons |
| Somatosenory | ISPPA: 50 W/cm2; | increased spike rates with | |
| cortex | ISPTA: 3, 15, 30, 45 mW/cm2; | higher PRFs and DCs | |
| PRF: 0.03, 0.3, 1.5, 3, 4.5 kHz; | |||
| DC: 0.6, 6, 30, 60, 90%; | |||
| SE: 67 ms | |||
| Lee et al. (2016b) | Human (n = 19) | fc: 0.27 MHz; | (1) Increased BOLD activation |
| Visual Cortex | ISPPA: 0.7–6.6 W/cm2; | in V1 during sonication; | |
| ISPTA: 0.35–3.3 W/cm2; | (2) Sonication evoked EEG | ||
| PRF: 0.5 kHz; | potentials similar to VEP; | ||
| DC: 50%; | (3) Sensory perception of | ||
| SD: 300 ms | phosphenes | ||
| Ai et al. (2016) | Human (n = 6) | fc: 0.5 MHz; | (1) Increased BOLD activation |
| Sensorimotor | ISPPA: 6 W/cm2; | in sensorimotor regions | |
| cortex | ISPTA: 2.16 W/cm2; | ||
| PRF: 1 kHz; | |||
| DC: 36%; | |||
| SD: 500 ms | |||
| Ai et al. (2016) | Human (n = 6) | fc: 0.86 MHz; | (1) Increased BOLD activation |
| Caudate | ISPPA: 6 W/cm2; | in caudate | |
| ISPTA: 3 W/cm2; | |||
| PRF: 0.5 kHz; | |||
| DC: 50%; | |||
| SD: 500 ms | |||
| Ai et al. (2018) | Human (n = 5) | fc: 0.5 MHz; | (1) Increased BOLD activation |
| Motor cortex | ISPPA: 16.95 W/cm2; | in motor cortex's finger | |
| ISPPA: 6.102 W/cm2; | representation; | ||
| PRF: 1 kHz; | (2) Activity did not spread to | ||
| DC: 36%; | functionally connected motor | ||
| SD: 500 ms | regions | ||
| Gibson et al. (2018) | Human (n = 19) | fc: 2.32 MHz; | (1) Increased cortical |
| Motor cortex | ISPPA: 34.96 W/cm2; | excitability of M1 following | |
| Sham (n = 21) | ISPTA: 132.85 mW/cm2; | sonication that lasted 360 s; | |
| DC: 100%; | (2) Cortical excitability did not | ||
| SE: 2 min | increase 660 s post-sonication | ||
| Lee et al. (2015a) | Human (n = 18) | fc: 0.25 MHz; | (1) Sonication induced cortical |
| Somatosensory | ISPPA: 3 W/cm2; | evoked potentials similar to | |
| cortex | ISPTA: 1.5 W/cm2; | SEP response from medial | |
| PRF: 0.5 kHz; | nerve stimulation | ||
| DC: 50%; | |||
| SD: 300 ms | |||
| Liu et al. (2021) | Humans (n = 9) | fc: 0.5 MHz; | (1) Increased amplitude of |
| Somatosenosry | ISPPA: 5.64 W/cm2; | N300 component source | |
| cortex | ISPTA: 0.338 W/cm2; | localized in the somatosensory | |
| PRF: 0.3 kHz; | cortex | ||
| DC: 6% | |||
| Yuan et al. (2020) | Mice (n = 29) | fc: 0.5 MHz; | (1) Peak CBF monotonically |
| Motor cortex | ISPPA: 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, 1.1 W/cm2; | increased with ISPPA or SD; | |
| ISPTA: 0.08–0.44 W/cm2; | |||
| PRF: 1 kHz | |||
| DC: 10, 20, 30, 40%; | |||
| SD: 50, 100, 200, 300, 400 ms | |||
| Yang et al. (2021) | Macaque (n = 2) | fc: 0.25 MHz; | (1) Sonication induced BOLD |
| Somatosensory | ISPPA: 6 W/cm2; | activation increase in primary | |
| cortex | ISPTA: 0.0271 W/cm2; | and secondary somatosensory, | |
| PRF: 2 kHz; | posterior insular, and | ||
| DC: 50%; | midcingulate cortices during rest | ||
| Lu et al. (2020) | Rats (n = 6) | fc: 0.5 MHz; | (1) Sonication induced low |
| Visual cortex | ISPPA: 115.8 W/cm2; | frequency activations with | |
| Retinal | ISPTA: 28.9, 38.6, 57.9 mW/cm2; | four peaks (N1, P1, N2, P2) | |
| degenerate | PRF: 0.1, 0.2, 0.333, 0.5 kHz; | except with PRF of 0.1 kHz; | |
| rats (n = 11) | DC: 25, 33.3, 40, 50%; | (2) Retinal degenerate rats | |
| SE: 67 ms | had larger recorded amplitudes of visual cortex neurons than the control rats during sonication |