Table 3.
Factors associated with high levels of fear of COVID-19 among the study population (based on FCV-19S scoring).
| Characteristics | Low levels of fear | High levels of fear | Unadjusted analyses | Adjusted analysis | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n | % | n | % | p | ORs | 95% CIs | p | AORs | 95% CIs | |||
| Age groups | 450 | 24 | ||||||||||
| 18–29 | 223 | 96.1 | 9 | 3.9 | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| 30–59 | 209 | 95.0 | 11 | 5.0 | 0.564 | 1.30 | 0.53 | 3.21 | 0.091 | 3.40 | 0.84 | 17.49 |
| > ≥60 | 18 | 81.8 | 4 | 18.2 | 0.009 | 5.51 | 1.54 | 19.65 | 0.002 | 13.93 | 2.66 | 84.21 |
| Gender | 450 | 24 | ||||||||||
| Male | 144 | 98.0 | 3 | 2.0 | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Female | 306 | 93.6 | 21 | 6.4 | 0.057 | 3.29 | 0.97 | 11.22 | 0.057 | 2.74 | 0.97 | 10.44 |
| Born in the same country of residence | 450 | 24 | ||||||||||
| No | 47 | 97.9 | 1 | 2.1 | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Yes | 403 | 94.6 | 23 | 5.4 | 0.340 | 2.68 | 0.35 | 20.32 | 0.651 | 1.46 | 0.34 | 13.62 |
| Living status | 450 | 24 | ||||||||||
| Live with family members | 221 | 96.1 | 9 | 3.9 | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Live with non-family members | 136 | 93.8 | 9 | 6.2 | 0.316 | 1.63 | 0.63 | 4.20 | 0.041 | 4.12 | 1.06 | 17.39 |
| Live alone | 93 | 93.9 | 6.1 | 3.9 | 0.395 | 1.58 | 0.55 | 4.58 | 0.164 | 2.19 | 0.71 | 6.35 |
| Highest educational/vocational qualification | 450 | 24 | ||||||||||
| Secondary/Higher Secondary/Grade 7 to 12 | 178 | 94.7 | 10 | 5.3 | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Certificate/Diploma/Trade qualifications | 77 | 92.8 | 6 | 7.2 | 0.540 | 1.39 | 0.49 | 3.95 | 0.034 | 7.75 | 1.19 | 40.49 |
| Bachelor/Masters/PhD | 195 | 96.1 | 8 | 3.9 | 0.517 | 0.73 | 0.28 | 1.89 | 0.756 | 1.21 | 0.37 | 4.08 |
| Current employment condition | 450 | 24 | ||||||||||
| Unemployed/Housewife/Home maker/Home duties (No source of income) | 161 | 9.8 | 7 | 5.1 | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Jobs affected by COVID-19 (lost job/working hours reduced/afraid of job loss) | 8 | 80.0 | 2 | 20.0 | 0.047 | 5.75 | 1.03 | 32.25 | 0.978 | 0.98 | 0.29 | 3.23 |
| Have an income source (employed/Government benefits) | 281 | 94.9 | 15 | 5.1 | 0.661 | 1.23 | 0.49 | 3.07 | 0.451 | 0.65 | 0.21 | 2.01 |
| Perceived distress due to change of employment status | 375 | 22 | ||||||||||
| A little to none | 189 | 94.0 | 12 | 6.0 | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Moderate to a great deal | 186 | 94.9 | 10 | 5.1 | 0.706 | 0.85 | 0.36 | 2.01 | 0.616 | 0.79 | 0.31 | 1.96 |
| Improved working situation due to change of employment status | 384 | 22 | ||||||||||
| A little to none | 332 | 94.3 | 20 | 5.7 | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Moderate to a great deal | 52 | 96.3 | 2 | 3.7 | 0.553 | 0.64 | 0.15 | 2.81 | 0.932 | 1.06 | 0.21 | 3.64 |
| Self-identification as a frontline or essential service worker | 450 | 24 | ||||||||||
| No | 237 | 94.8 | 13 | 5.2 | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Yes | 213 | 95.1 | 11 | 4.9 | 0.886 | 0.94 | 0.41 | 2.15 | 0.982 | 1.01 | 0.37 | 2.93 |
| Self-identification as a healthcare worker | 450 | 24 | ||||||||||
| No | 201 | 93.5 | 14 | 6.5 | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Yes, doctor | 63 | 98.4 | 1 | 1.6 | 0.157 | 0.23 | 0.03 | 1.77 | 0.345 | 0.42 | 0.04 | 2.41 |
| Yes, nurse | 15 | 83.3 | 3 | 16.7 | 0.126 | 2.87 | 0.74 | 11.11 | 0.453 | 1.87 | 0.34 | 9.02 |
| Yes, other healthcare worker | 171 | 96.6 | 6 | 3.4 | 0.169 | 0.50 | 0.19 | 1.34 | 0.121 | 0.41 | 0.13 | 1.27 |
| COVID-19 impacted financial situation | 450 | 24 | ||||||||||
| No impact | 349 | 95.9 | 15 | 4.1 | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Yes, impacted positively | 40 | 93.0 | 3 | 7.0 | 0.395 | 1.75 | 0.48 | 6.29 | 0.184 | 2.48 | 0.61 | 7.85 |
| Yes, impacted negatively | 61 | 91.0 | 6 | 9.0 | 0.099 | 2.29 | 0.86 | 6.13 | 0.163 | 2.30 | 0.70 | 6.66 |
| Affected by the change in financial situation | 450 | 24 | ||||||||||
| Not at all | 188 | 94.9 | 10 | 5.1 | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Unsure | 51 | 96.2 | 2 | 3.8 | 0.700 | 0.74 | 0.16 | 3.47 | 0.940 | 0.94 | 0.16 | 3.76 |
| Somewhat | 124 | 95.4 | 6 | 4.6 | 0.858 | 0.91 | 0.32 | 2.57 | 0.896 | 0.93 | 0.31 | 2.63 |
| A great extent | 36 | 92.3 | 3 | 7.7 | 0.511 | 1.57 | 0.41 | 5.98 | 0.340 | 1.94 | 0.46 | 6.64 |
| Co-morbidities | 450 | 24 | ||||||||||
| No | 320 | 95.0 | 17 | 5.0 | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Psychiatric/Mental health problem | 33 | 94.3 | 2 | 5.7 | 0.864 | 1.14 | 0.25 | 5.16 | 0.429 | 1.84 | 0.34 | 6.72 |
| Other co-morbidities* | 97 | 95.1 | 5 | 4.9 | 0.954 | 0.97 | 0.35 | 2.70 | 0.590 | 1.33 | 0.44 | 3.55 |
| Co-morbidities | 450 | 24 | ||||||||||
| No | 326 | 97.9 | 7 | 2.1 | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Single co-morbidity | 89 | 90.8 | 9 | 9.2 | 0.003 | 4.71 | 1.71 | 13.00 | 0.001 | 5.76 | 2.01 | 17.44 |
| Multiple co-morbidities | 35 | 81.4 | 8 | 18.6 | <0.001 | 10.65 | 3.64 | 31.12 | <0.001 | 9.48 | 2.89 | 32.19 |
| Perceived status of own mental health | 450 | 24 | ||||||||||
| Good to Excellent | 350 | 97.2 | 10 | 2.8 | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Poor to Fair | 100 | 87.7 | 14 | 12.3 | <0.001 | 4.90 | 2.11 | 11.37 | <0.001 | 5.83 | 2.41 | 15.02 |
| Smoking | 450 | 24 | ||||||||||
| Never smoker | 392 | 94.5 | 23 | 5.5 | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Ever smoker (Daily/Nondaily/ Ex) | 58 | 98.3 | 1 | 1.7 | 0.235 | 0.29 | 0.04 | 2.22 | 0.167 | 0.35 | 0.04 | 1.46 |
| Increased smoking over the last 6 months | 58 | 1 | ||||||||||
| No | 35 | 100.0 | 0 | 0.0 | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Yes | 23 | 95.8 | 1 | 4.2 | 0.361 | 4.53 | 0.18 | 116.04 | 0.334 | 3.48 | 0.27 | 276.80 |
| Current alcohol drinking (last 4 weeks) | 450 | 24 | ||||||||||
| No | 258 | 94.2 | 16 | 5.8 | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Yes | 192 | 96.0 | 8 | 4.0 | 0.370 | 0.67 | 0.28 | 1.60 | 0.377 | 0.68 | 0.27 | 1.59 |
| Increased alcohol drinking over the last 6 months | 192 | 8 | ||||||||||
| No | 147 | 95.5 | 7 | 4.5 | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Yes | 45 | 97.8 | 1 | 2.2 | 0.481 | 0.47 | 0.06 | 3.90 | 0.928 | 0.92 | 0.10 | 4.72 |
| Contact with known/suspected case of COVID-19 | 450 | 24 | ||||||||||
| No | 230 | 95.8 | 10 | 4.2 | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Unsure | 50 | 98.0 | 1 | 2.0 | 0.464 | 0.46 | 0.06 | 3.68 | 0.942 | 0.94 | 0.10 | 4.36 |
| Yes, had indirect contact | 70 | 89.7 | 8 | 10.3 | 0.050 | 2.63 | 1.00 | 6.92 | 0.057 | 2.64 | 0.97 | 7.07 |
| Yes, provided direct care | 100 | 95.2 | 5 | 4.8 | 0.803 | 1.15 | 0.38 | 3.45 | 0.513 | 1.47 | 0.44 | 4.46 |
| Experience related to COVID-19 pandemic | 450 | 24 | ||||||||||
| No known exposure to COVID-19 | 322 | 96.4 | 12 | 3.6 | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Treated in hospital / Ordered to quarantine/ Tested positive / Lived with someone who had Covid | 112 | 91.1 | 11 | 8.9 | 0.025 | 2.64 | 1.13 | 6.14 | 0.021 | 3.09 | 1.19 | 8.12 |
| Traveled overseas and had to quarantine | 16 | 94.1 | 1 | 5.9 | 0.630 | 1.68 | 0.21 | 13.71 | 0.149 | 4.95 | 0.49 | 26.65 |
| Self-identification as a patient (visited a healthcare provider in the last 6 months) | 450 | 24 | ||||||||||
| No | 244 | 97.6 | 6 | 2.4 | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Yes | 206 | 92.0 | 18 | 8.0 | 0.008 | 3.55 | 1.39 | 9.12 | 0.024 | 2.81 | 1.14 | 7.77 |
| Level of psychological distress (K10 categories) | 450 | 24 | ||||||||||
| Low (score 10–15) | 91 | 97.8 | 2 | 2.2 | Ref | |||||||
| Moderate to Very High (score 16–50) | 359 | 94.2 | 22 | 5.8 | 0.170 | 2.79 | 0.64 | 12.08 | 0.162 | 2.61 | 0.71 | 14.59 |
| Level of coping (BRCS categories) | 450 | 24 | ||||||||||
| Low resilient coping (score 4–13) | 147 | 93.0 | 11 | 7.0 | Ref | |||||||
| Medium to high resilient coping (score 14–20) | 303 | 95.9 | 13 | 4.1 | 0.187 | 0.57 | 0.25 | 1.31 | 0.190 | 0.56 | 0.23 | 1.35 |
| Healthcare services used to overcome COVID-19 related stress in the last 6 months | 450 | 24 | ||||||||||
| No | 433 | 96.4 | 16 | 3.6 | Ref | |||||||
| Yes | 17 | 68.0 | 8 | 32.0 | <0.001 | 12.74 | 4.79 | 33.84 | <0.001 | 15.26 | 4.88 | 48.84 |
Data are presented as number (n) and percentage (%). P-values ≤ of 0.05 were considered statistically significant.
ORs, Odds Ratio; AOR, Adjusted Odds Ratio; CI, Confidence Interval; Ref, Reference category; COVID-19, Coronavirus Disease 19; K-10, Kessler Depression Scale; FCV, Fear of Coronavirus-19 Scale; BRCS, Brief Resilient Coping Scale.
*
Adjusted for Age, Gender, born in Germany, living status, employment status and level of education.
Bold indicated statistical significance.