Table 1.

Resting-state fMRI Functional Connectivity Studies of Mindfulness. Study design, mindfulness specificity, rsFC methodology and summary of major findings of each mindfulness and rsFC article. N = number of participants.

Article	Study Design	Participants	Mindfulness specificity	rsFC specificity	Findings (with effect sizes or z-scores)
Trait mindfulness: within non-practitioners
Bilevicius et al.	Trait mindfulness and rsFC	meditation-naïve (n = 32)	Trait, MAAS	ICA: DMN, SN and FPN	↗ trait mindfulness linked to FC: ↗ SN and left insula (r = 0.60) ↘ SN and right cuneus (r = −0.70) ↘ right FPN and left cuneus (r = −0.55) ↘ left FPN and left precuneus (r = −0.61) ↗ right FPN and right MFG (r = 0.64) ↗ DMN and right MFG (r = 0.54), right PHG (r = 0.62), left caudate (r = 0.60) ↘ DMN and left MFG (r = −0.66), left STG (r = −0.47), left insula (r = −0.62)
Parkinson et al.	Trait mindfulness and rsFC	meditation-naïve (n = 29)	Trait, FFMQ	ICA: DMN, SN, FPN, ATN (VAN and DAN)	↗ trait mindfulness (FFMQ total score and subscales) linked to FC: ↘ STG and DMN (r = −0.77; Total score), ATN (r = −0.68; Describing subscale), FPN (r = −0.60; Non-reactivity subscale) ↘ SFG (in dmPFC, in DMN) with FPN (r = −0.60; Total score) ↗ insula and ATN (r = 0.75; Observing subscale) ↗ mid-cingulate gyrus and DMN (r = 0.59; Non-judging subscale) ↗ cuneus and DMN (r = 0.63; Acting), SN (r = 0.78; Total, r = 0.68; Acting and r = 0.65; Non-judging subscales)
Trait mindfulness: meditation experts vs naïve
Bauer et al.	Trait (naïve vs. experienced) and state (resting vs. meditation) mindfulness	meditation-naïve (n = 17) and practitioners (n = 16)	Trait and state	seed-based from fALFF: mPFC for DMN, bilateral IFG and IPL for FPN	Trait differences in FC, experts vs naïve: ↘ DMN and left SFG, right MFG, IPL and STG ↘ between DMN and FPNa ↘ between mPFC of DMN and MFG positively correlated to experience (r = 0.87)
Froeliger et al.	Trait (naïve vs experienced) and state (resting vs meditation) mindfulness	meditation-naïve (n = 7) and practitioners (n = 7)	Trait and state	Seed-based network analysis: DMN, DAN, FPN, SN nodes	Trait differences in FC, experts vs naïve: ↗ within DAN: right IPL and left FEF (Cohen’s d between 1.3 and 1.7) ↗ between DAN and DMN, ↗ FPN and SN positively correlated to experience (r > 0.71)
Mindfulness Training
Kilpatrick et al.	Longitudinal approach: 8-week MBSR vs waiting list controls	meditation-naïve (n = 32)	MBSR	group ICA to investigate ICNs	Training-mediated FC differences: ↗ within auditory network(Cohen’s d = 0.85) and within visual network (Cohen’s d = 1.04) ↘ between auditory and visual networks (Cohen’s d = 0.90) ↘ rACC and visual network(Cohen’s d = 0.84) ↗ rACC and dmPFC of DMN (Cohen’s d = 0.83) ↘ cuneus of DMN and “SN” (Cohen’s d = 0.92)
Doll et al.	Longitudinal approach: 2-week audio recording	meditation-naïve (n = 26)	MBSR-based audio recordings daily for two weeks	ICNs: DMN, FPN and SN	Training-mediated FC differences: ↘ between insula of SN and DMN (r = −0.14)
Kral et al.	Longitudinal approach: 8-week MBSR group vs HEP or waiting-list controls	meditation-naïve (n = 140)	MBSR	seed-based: PCC for DMN and dlPFC for FPN	Training-mediated FC differences: ↗ between PCC (DMN) and right dlPFC (FPN) compared to active (Cohen’s d = 0.28), and passive control group (Cohen’s d = 0.34), no difference after 5.5 months follow-up
Yang et al.	Longitudinal approach: 40 days MBSR-based training	meditation-naïve (n = 13)	MBSR-based	seed-based: pgACC and dACC	Training-mediated FC differences:pgACC seed: ↘ left PCC/precuneus (z-score = 4.71), left dmPFC (z-score = 4.35), right STG (z-score = 4.34), left middle occipital gyrus (z-score = 4.19) ↗ right ITG (z-score = 4.23), right IFG (z-score = 3.84), right TPJ/IPL (z-score = 3.76) dACC seed: ↘ calcarine sulcus, cuneus (z-score = 4.37), ↗ cerebellum (z-score = 4.56), right IPL (z-score = 4.20), PCC (z-score = 4.13)
Kwak et al.	Retreat: 4-day mindfulness retreat vs control relaxation retreat	NA, meditation retreat (n = 44), relaxation retreat (n = 23)	4-day retreat	seed-based: rACC (= pgACC + sgACC) and dACC	Training-mediated FC differences: ↗ left rACC and DMN: dmPFC, precuneus, angular gyrus ↗ right dACC and PCC(all z-scores > 2.3)
Mindfulness and Illness
Lifshitz et al.	Longitudinal approach: 2-week MBCT-based audio recording vs active control relaxation	meditation-naïve, MDD, mindfulness (n = 17), relaxation (n = 20)	MBCT audio recordings	seed-based: dlPFC for FPNs, aINS for SN, PCC for DMN	Training-mediated FC differences: ↘ within FPN: between dlPFC and fusiform gyrus, dlPFC and right angular gyrusa ↘ rsFC correlated to ↘ in depressive scoresangular gyrus (r = −0.505), right fusiform gyrus (r = −0.675), left fusiform gyrus (r = −0.543)
Creswell et al.	Retreat: 3-day mindfulness training vs relaxation training	meditation-naïve, chronic stress, mindfulness (n = 18), relaxation (n = 17)	3-day retreat	seed-based: PCC	Training-mediated FC differences: ↗ between PCC and left dlPFC (z-score = 3.44)
Taren et al.	Retreat: 3-day mindfulness training vs relaxation training	meditation-naïve, chronic stress, mindfulness (n = 18), relaxation (n = 17)	3-day retreat	seed-based: amygdala with ACC mask	Training-mediated FC differences: ↘ between sgACC and amygdala (z-score = 3.61)
Su et al.	Longitudinal approach: 6-week MBSR training	meditation-naïve with chronic pain (n = 18), or pain-free control (n = 16)	MBSR	seed-based: aINS	Training-mediated FC differences: ↗ aINS and dorsal anterior midcingulate cortex (z-score = 3.07)
King et al.	Longitudinal approach: 8-week MBET vs active control group	Meditation-naïve, PTSD, MBET (n = 14), PCGT control (n = 9)	MBET	seed-based: PCC and vmPFC for DMN	Training-mediated FC differences: ↗ PCC of DMN and dlPFC of FPN (z-score > 3.66)

ACC = anterior cingulate cortex;

aINS = anterior insular cortex;

ATN = attentional network;

b = regression coefficient beta

cACC = caudal anterior cingulate cortex;

dACC = dorsal anterior cingulate cortex;

DAN = dorsal attention network;

DMN = default mode network;

dlPFC = dorsolateral prefrontal cortex;

dmPFC = dorsomedial prefrontal cortex;

fALFF = fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations;

FEF = frontal eye field;

FFMQ = five facet mindfulness questionnaire;

FFMQtot = five facet mindfulness questionnaire total score;

FPN = frontoparietal network;

HEP = health enhancement program;

ICA = independent component analysis;

ICNs = intrinsic connectivity networks;

IFG = inferior frontal gyrus;

IPL = inferior parietal lobe;

ITG = inferior temporal gyrus;

MAAS = mindful attention awareness scale;

MBCT = Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy;

MBET = mindfulness-based exposure therapy

MBSR = mindfulness-based stress reduction program;

MDD = major depressive disorder;

MFG = middle frontal gyrus;

MPFC = medial prefrontal cortex;

PCC = posterior cingulate cortex;

PCGT = present-centered group therapy;

PFC = prefrontal cortex;

pgACC = pregenual anterior cingulate cortex;

PHG = parahippocampal gyrus;

PTSD = post-traumatic stress disorder;

r = Pearson correlation coefficient

rACC = rostral anterior cingulate cortex;

ROI = region of interest;

rsFC = resting-state functional connectivity;

SFG = superior frontal gyrus;

sgACC = subgenual anterior cingulate cortex;

SN = salience network;

STG = superior temporal gyrus;

TPJ = temporoparietal junction;

VAN = ventral attention network;

vlPFC = ventrolateral prefrontal cortex;

vmPFC = ventromedial prefrontal cortex;

^aResults reported without effect sizes or z-scores.