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. 2022 May 10;20:206. doi: 10.1186/s12967-022-03405-8

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 4 — PDX clinical trial and Co-clinical trial. A In models that follow the PDX clinical trial approach, a large number of PDXs originate from several patients or samples of a bio-repository. Each model tests a specific drug regimen, and the information obtained is evaluated. B Co-clinical trials were developed to achieve precision medicine. In fact, the mouse trials are performed in parallel with the human trials, and then in real-time, the information obtained from the mouse study is transferred to the human study and integrated. This leads to the most effective clinical outcome