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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2022 May 11.
Published in final edited form as: J Food Prot. 2021 Dec 1;84(12):2195–2212. doi: 10.4315/JFP-21-219

Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Simplified schematic of major ethyl carbamate formation mechanisms. (A) Arginine, rich in grapes, can be metabolized to urea (by yeast) and citrulline (by lactic acid bacteria) during fermentation. Urea can then react with ethanol produced during fermentation to yield ethyl carbamate. In addition, citrulline can react with ethanol to yield ethyl carbamate. (B) Cyanogenic glycosides from sources such as fruit stones (e.g., plum and cherry pits), grains, and sugar cane can undergo hydrolysis to yield cyanate. Copper ions (Cu2+) have the capability to enhance cyanate formation. In turn, cyanate can react with ethanol to form ethyl carbamate.