Table 5.

Summary of current practices for mitigation of ethyl carbamate in food and beverages.

Mitigation method	Comments	References
Input ingredients	• Grapes with excessive nitrogen levels can contribute to ethyl carbamate formation.	Butzke & Bisson (1997)
Genetically engineered yeast	• Yeast with enhanced capability to reduce urea has been commercialized. • Bread and red wine made with this modified yeast are reported to have reduced ethyl carbamate formation.	Heller et al. (2006)
Removal of stone fruit pits	• Reduction in the number of stone fruit pits in the fermentation mash can reduce ethyl carbamate formation.	Codex Committee (2009)
Distillation	• Efficient separation of the “heads” and “tails” fractions from the “hearts” fraction during distillation reduces ethyl carbamate levels in the distillate.	Codex Committee (2009)
Distillation apparatus (a still)	• A still with copper boiling kettle can reduce levels of cyanate. • Use of a stainless-steel collection vessel compared to a copper vessel can prevent ethyl carbamate formation post-distillation.	Codex Committee (2009)
Enzymatic Treatment (urease)	• Treatment reduces levels of the ethyl carbamate precursor urea. • Generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the FDA. • Permitted for use in wine by the International Association of Vine and Wine (OIV).	FDA (1993); OIV (2017)
Storage conditions	• The finished product should be stored in tinted bottles and away from excessive heat.	Codex Committee (2009)