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. 2022 Apr 29;13:853000. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.853000

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Copyright © 2022 Attaluri, Upadhya, Kodali, Madhu, Upadhya, Shuai and Shetty

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Animals with chronic Gulf War Illness (GWI) displayed an increased concentration of proinflammatory cytokines in the hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and circulating blood. The bar charts A–H compare tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α; A, E), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β; B, F), macrophage inflammatory protein-1 alpha (MIP-1α; C, G), and interleukin 6 (IL-6; D, H) concentrations in the hippocampus (A–D) and the cerebral cortex (E–H) between naïve and GWI rats. The bar charts (I–P) compare TNF-α (I), IL-1β (J), MIP-1α (K), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1; L), transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β; M), fibroblast growth factor-beta (FGF-β; N), interleukin-1 alpha (IL-1α; O), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF; P) concentrations in the serum between naïve and GWI rats. *, p < 0.05; **, p < 0.01; ***, p < 0.001; ****, p < 0.0001.