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Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Temperature distributions of tunnel lining under fire (the maximum temperature of 800 °C) (a) 1 min after fire; (b) 1st spalling (15.88 min); (c) 2nd spalling (33.88 min); (d) 3rd spalling (56.82 min).