Table 1.

Studies on the effects of glyphosate and/or its commercial formulations in humans.

Type of Study	Toxic Agent	Exposure Mode/Objetives	Results	Reference
Transversal study	GBH	Occupational exposure	-Positive association between GBH exposure and visual memory impairment	[45]
Prospective cohort study	GBH	Not specified	-↑ in S100B protein levels in patients with neurological complications -S100B protein was a predictor of neurological complications in GLY-poisoned patients	[46]
Population-based case-control study	GBH	Occupational exposure	-Prenatal and infant exposure increases the risk of autism spectrum disorder -Exposure during childhood appears to increase the risk of developing more severely impaired phenotypes with comorbid intellectual disability	[47]
Cohort study	GBH	Occupational exposure	-GBHs were associated with lower toxicity to farmers’ health compared to other non-GBHs	[48]
Cohort study	GBH	Occupational exposure	-No relationship was found between GBH use and peripheral nerve conduction abnormalities in farmers	[49]
In vitro SH-SY5Y cell line	GLY alone or mixed with other formulants: 5.33 to 3.200 μg/mL for 24 h	Investigate whether GBH toxicity is related to formulants	-Inhibition of cell proliferation when GLY was administered with other formulants but not when it was administered alone	[50]
In vitro IMR90-c4 iPSCs line	GLY, AMPA: 0.1 to 1000 μM for 24 or 48 h	Investigate the effect of GLY on the BBB in vitro and compare it with that of AMPA and glycine	-GLY and its metabolite altered the integrity of the BBB -GLY can be released through the BBB -High doses of GLY and AMPA altered glucose uptake by microvascular endothelial cells in the brain and metabolic activity of neurons	[51]
In vitro SH-SY5Y cell line	GLY, AMPA: 0.1 to 20 mM for 48 h	Investigate the effects of GLY and AMPA on oxidative stress, neurodevelopment, and cell death.	-↓ cell viability and increased leakage of LDH -↑ production of MDA, NO, and ROS -↑ caspase-3/7 activity -GLY ↑ the levels of mRNA-Wnt3a, -Wnt5a, and -Wnt7a -GLY positively regulated IL-6 and TNF-α genes -GLY ↑ the expression of CAMK2A and CAMK2B mRNA -GLY and AMPA downregulated the expression of the TUBB3 and GAP43 genes -GLY and AMPA altered the gene expression of cell death pathways	[52]

Abbreviations: GBH, glyphosate-based herbicide; ↑, increase; S100B, S100 calcium-binding protein B; GLY, glyphosate; iPSCs, induced pluripotent stem cells; AMPA, aminomethylphosphonic acid; BBB, blood–brain barrier; ↓, decrease; LDH, lactate dehydrogenase; MDA, malondialdehyde; NO, nitric oxide; ROS, reactive oxygen species; IL-6, interleukin-6; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor alpha; CAMK2, Ca^2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase 2.