Table 1. Demographic characteristics and laboratory information of participating sites, by United Nations (UN) region, global survey of Mycoplasma pneumoniae detections, April 2017–March 2021.
| UN region and country | City or region | National pandemic lockdown (days, period)a | School closure duration (days)b | Laboratory and/or systemc | Test method (technique; product) | Company or reference | Macrolide resistance determination |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Europe | |||||||
| Western Europe | |||||||
| France | Bordeaux | 102 days (17 Mar–11 May 2020; 28 Oct–14 Dec 2020) |
43 | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) | NAAT (PCR, real-time; in-house) | [47] | Yes [48] |
| Switzerland | Geneva | 41 days (16 Mar–26 Apr 2020) |
31 | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) | NAAT (multiplex PCR, real-time; BioGX Sample-Ready BD MAX System) | BD Diagnostics | No |
| Lausanne | Hospital / clinical laboratory (secondary centre) | NAAT (multiplex PCR, microarray; FilmArray Respiratory Panel) | bioMérieux/BioFire Diagnostics | No | |||
| Bernd | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) | NAAT (multiplex PCR, real-time; Anyplex II RB5 Detection) | Seegene Inc. | No | |||
| Lucerned | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) | NAAT (multiplex PCR, microarray; FilmArray Respiratory Panel) | bioMérieux/BioFire Diagnostics | No | |||
| Bellinzona | Surveillance system (regional; 0.4 million population) e | NAAT (multiplex PCR, microarray; FilmArray Respiratory Panel)f | bioMérieux/BioFire Diagnostics | No | |||
| Zurich (A) | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) | NAAT (PCR, real-time; in-house) | [49] | Yes [50] | |||
| Zurich (B)d | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) | NAAT (PCR, real-time; in-house)g | [49] | Yes [50] | |||
| St. Gallend | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) | NAAT (multiplex PCR, real-time; Allplex Respiratory Panel) | Seegene Inc. | No | |||
| Aarau | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) | NAAT (multiplex PCR, microarray; FilmArray Respiratory Panel) | bioMérieux/BioFire Diagnostics | No | |||
| ELISAh (ImmunoWELL Mycoplasma IgM/IgG) | Thermo Fisher Scientific Remel Inc. | ||||||
| Basel (A) | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) | NAAT (multiplex PCR, microarray; FilmArray Respiratory Panel) | bioMérieux/BioFire Diagnostics | No | |||
| Basel (B)d | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) | NAAT (multiplex PCR, microarray; FilmArray Respiratory Panel)i | bioMérieux/BioFire Diagnostics | No | |||
| Germany | Homburg | 161 days (17 Mar–5 May 2020; 19 Dec 2020–end of survey period) |
92 | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) | NAAT (multiplex PCR, real-time; AID CAP Bac PCR Kit) | Autoimmun Diagnostika GmbH (AID) | No |
| CLIAh (Mycoplasma pneumoniae Virclia IgM/IgG Monotest) | Vircell, S.L. | ||||||
| Düsseldorf | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) | NAAT (PCR, real-time; in-house) | [51] | No | |||
| ELISAh (EIA Mycoplasma IgM/IgG/IgA) | DIAsource ImmunoAssays SA | ||||||
| Saxonyj | Surveillance system (regional; 4.1 million population) k | Combination of direct and indirect test methods (different techniques)k | [12] | No | |||
| Belgium | Antwerp, Leuven (national reference laboratory) | 52 days (18 Mar–9 May 2020) |
76 | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) and national reference laboratory l | NAAT (PCR, real-time; in-house) | [52] | Yes [48] |
| National surveillancej | Surveillance system (national; 60% of all Belgian microbiology laboratories) m | Direct test methods (different techniques)m | [53] | No | |||
| The Netherlands | Rotterdam | 99 days (16 Mar–6 Apr 2020; 15 Dec 2020–2 Mar 2021) |
74 | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) | NAAT (PCR, real-time; in-house) | [54] | No |
| Northern Europe | |||||||
| England | National reference laboratoryn | 72 days (14 Mar– 9 May 2020; 5 Nov–1 Dec 2020) |
102 | National reference laboratory | NAAT (multiplex PCR, real-time; in-house) | [20] | Yes [55] |
| Denmark | National surveillance | 99 days (12 Mar–13 Apr 2020; 25 Dec–1 Mar 2020) |
76 | Surveillance system (national; 5.8 million population) | NAAT (PCR, different techniques)o | [56] | No |
| Finland | Turku | 98 days (16 Mar–22 Jun 2020) |
42 | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) | Combination of direct and indirect test methods (different techniques)p | [57] | No |
| National surveillancej | Surveillance system (national; 5.5 million population) | Combination of direct and indirect test methods (different techniques)q | [6] | No | |||
| Norway | Trondheim | 81 days (12 Mar–1 Jun 2020) |
32 | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) | NAAT (multiplex PCR, real-time; in-house) | NA | No |
| Southern Europe | |||||||
| Portugal | Coimbrad | 103 days (19 Mar–2 May 2020; 15 Jan–15 Mar 2021) |
67 | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) | NAAT (multiplex PCR, microarray; FilmArray Respiratory Panel) | bioMérieux/BioFire Diagnostics | No |
| Greece | Athens (A)d | 179 days (23 Mar–4 May 2020; 7 Nov 2020–22 Mar 2021) |
114 | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) | ELISA (DRG Mycoplasma pneumoniae ELISA IgM/IgG) | DRG International, Inc. | No |
| Athens (B)d | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) | ELISA (NovaLisa Mycoplasma pneumoniae IgM/IgG) | Novatec Immundiagnostica GmbH | No | |||
| Slovenia | Ljubljana | 46 days (19 Mar–4 May 2020) |
46 | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) | NAAT (multiplex PCR, real-time; Chla/Myco pneumo R-GENE) | bioMérieux/ARGENE | No |
| Asia | |||||||
| Western Asia | |||||||
| Israel | Jerusalem | 52 days (12 Mar–3 May 2020) |
139 | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) | NAAT (PCR, real-time; in-house) | [20] | No |
| Eastern Asia | |||||||
| Japan | Kurashiki City (Okayama)d | 0 days (no national lockdown) |
51 | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) | NAAT (PCR, real-time; in-house) | [58] | Yes [58] |
| Tokyo | Hospital / clinical laboratory (secondary centre) | Rapid antigen test (SAI; FUJI DRI-CHEM IMMUNO AG) | Fujifilm, Kanagawa, Japan | No | |||
| Taiwan | Taoyuand | 0 days (no national lockdown) |
0 (no official school closures) | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) | NAAT (PCR, real-time; in-house) | [59] | Yes [59] |
| South-eastern Asia | |||||||
| Singapore | Singapored | 55 days (7 Apr–1 Jun 2020) |
57 | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) | NAAT (multiplex PCR, microarray; FilmArray Respiratory Panel) | bioMérieux/BioFire Diagnostics | No |
| South Asia | |||||||
| India | New Delhi | 74 days (25 Mar–7 Jun 2020) |
235 | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) | ELISA (NovaLisa Mycoplasma pneumoniae IgM) | Novatec Immundiagnostica GmbH | NO |
| America | |||||||
| Northern America | |||||||
| United States | Chicagod | 70 days (21 Mar–30 May 2020) |
192 | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) | NAAT (multiplex PCR, microarray; FilmArray Respiratory Panel) | bioMérieux/BioFire Diagnostics | No |
| Caribbean | |||||||
| Cuba | National surveillance | 240 days (20 Mar–18 Jun 2020; 1 Nov 2020–end of survey period) |
121 | Surveillance system (national; 11.3 million population) | NAAT (PCR, real-time; in-house) | [60] | Yes [60] |
| Oceania | |||||||
| Australia | Darlinghurst (Sydney) | 53 days (23 Mar–15 May 2020) |
125 | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) | NAAT (PCR, real-time; EasyScreen Respiratory Pathogen Detection Kit) | Genetic Signatures | No |
| New Zealand | Auckland | 78 days (national: 23 Mar–13 May 2020; Auckland: 12–18 Aug 2020; 15–17 Feb 2021; 28 Feb–7 Mar 2021) |
40 | Hospital / clinical laboratory (tertiary centre) | NAAT (multiplex PCR, microarray; FilmArray Respiratory Panel)r | bioMérieux/BioFire Diagnostics | No |
CLIA: chemiluminescent immunoassay; ELISA: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; Ig, immunoglobulin; NA: not available; NAAT: nucleic acid amplification test; SAI: silver amplification immunochromatography; UN: United Nations.
a Stay-at-home orders for the general population (referred to as lockdown) according to an ECDC document [25] for Europe and to Wikipedia [26] for other UN regions, with adjustments made by the local participating author and considered until the end of the study period (31 March 2021).
b Full and partial school closure duration in days according to [27] until 2 March 2021 (last update before end of study period).
c More detailed information including reporting characteristics, de-duplication and exclusion criteria are provided in Supplementary Table S2.
d ≥ 90% of data are from children and adolescents < 18 years of age.
e Data from several hospitals in the region of Ticino.
f Additional use of a specific in-house PCR [52].
g From 12 October 2020 to the end of the survey period additional testing with the FilmArray Respiratory Panel (bioMérieux/BioFire Diagnostics).
h In addition to PCR also serological data separately reported.
i Multiplex PCR testing before 2020 using the Respifinder (Pathofinder), and single PCR testing over the total survey period with a specific in-house PCR, as described previously [61].
j Exclusively positive test numbers (and no total test numbers) available and/or reported.
k Data from the federal state of Saxony detected by the Landesuntersuchungsanstalt Sachsen based on combined direct and indirect test methods, but predominantly on serology (no information on isotypes) [12].
l National reference laboratory data from the two related hospitals (Antwerp, Leuven; 86–98%) and across the country (2–14%).
m Data collected through the Belgian Sentinel Network of Laboratories (SNL), a network of ca 95 microbiology laboratories (i.e. 60% of all Belgian microbiology laboratories) [53], based on direct test methods such as NAAT, antigen test, culture, microscopy, 'unknown' or 'other' (cases based on serology were excluded).
n Period of enhanced surveillance from 1 October 2019 to 30 March 2020.
o Different PCR assays, of which some are published [56] or commercial kits, but most are unpublished but validated in-house assays.
p Predominantly by serology (ca 75%; no information on isotypes), partly by multiplex PCR (Allplex Respiratory Panel, Seegene Inc.; ca 25%).
q Predominantly by PCR.
r Additional use of an in-house multiplex PCR (www.labplus.co.nz).
Entries in bold signify national and/or regional surveillances.