Table 1.
The Characteristics of the included studies.
| Study | Design | Main Study Objective | Country; Sample Size (Female) |
Age (Years) | Measure of Time Spent on Social Media | Depression Measure |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Banjanin et al. 2015 | CS | Investigated the potential relationship between internet addiction and depression in adolescents. | Serbia; 336 (66%) | 18 | Self-report daily time spent on social networking; Response: self-administered open answer | CESD |
| Boers et al. 2019 | LS | Repeatedly measured the association between screen time and depression. | Canada; 3826 (47%) | 12.7–15.7 Grade 7–11 |
Self-report how much time per day they spend on social networking sites; Response: 0–30 min, 30 min–1.5 h, 1.5 h–2.5 h, ≥3.5 h | BSI |
| Brunborg et al. 2019 | LS | Examined association between time spent on social media and depression, conduct problems, and drinking. | Norway; 763 (55%) | 15.22 | Self-report daily hours spent on social media; Response: <1 to >15 in hourly increments | PHQ9 |
| Calandri et al. 2021 | LS | Investigated the relationships between social media use and depressive symptoms. | Italy; 336 (48%) | 13.0 (13–15) |
Self-report daily hrs spent on communicating online with friends through social networks; Response: 0, 1, 2, ≥3 | CESD |
| Costa et al. 2020 | CS | Examined the associations between self-reported and accelerometer-measured movement behaviors and depressive symptoms. | Brazil; 610 (52%) | 16.30 (14–18) | Self-report daily hours spent on social media; Response: <2, 2–4, ≥4 | CESD |
| Coyne et al. 2019 | CS | Examined the association between time spent using social media and depression and anxiety at the intra-individual level. | USA; 500 (52%) | 13–20 | Self-report daily hours on social media; Response: 1 (0) to 9 (>8) | CESD |
| Dredge et al. 2020 | CS | Examined the association between online gaming and social media use frequency, depression, and other mental health. | China; 320 (47%) | 13.98 (12–17) | Self-report daily time spent on social media; Response: 1 (0) to 9 (>8) | PHQ9 |
| Ellis et al. 2020 | CS | Examined the relationships between psychological adjustment and stress and the initial COVID-19 crisis. | Canada; 1054 (76%) | 16.68 (14–18) | Self-report daily time spent using social media platforms; Response: <10 min, 10–30 min, 31–60 min, 1–2 h, 2–3 h, 3–5 h, 5–10 h, to more than 10 h | BSI |
| Fardouly et al. 2020 | CS | Investigated differences between preadolescent users and non-users of various social media platforms on mental health. | Australia; 528 (269) | 11.19 | Self-report daily time spent on social media platform; Response: 0 (0), 1 (<5 min), 2 (5–15 min), 3 (15–30) min, 4 (30 min–1 h), 5 (1–2 h), 6 (2–4 h), 7 (4–6 h), 8 (6–8 h), 9 (8–10 h), 10 (10–12 h or more). | SMFQ |
| Frison et al. 2016 | LS | Examined the relationships between peer victimization on Facebook, depressive symptoms, and life satisfaction. | Belgium; 1621 (51%) | 14.76 (12–19) | Self-report daily hours spent on Facebook; Response: 0 (0), 1 (0.5), 2 (0.5–1), 3 (1–1.5), 4 (1.5–2), 5 (2–2.5), 6 (2.5–3), 7 (3–4), 8 (4–5), 9 (>5), 10 (always logged in and available for interaction) | CESD |
| Kelly et al. 2018 | CS | Assessed association between social media use and adolescents’ depressive symptoms. | UK; 10,904 (50%) | 14.30 | Self-report daily hours spent on social media; Response: 0, <1, 1–3, 3–5, ≥5 | SMFQ |
| Lemola et al. 2014 | CS | Sought a better understand the interplay between sleep, depressive symptoms, and electronic media use at night | Switzerland; 362 (45%) | 14.82 (12–17) | Self-report daily duration spent online on Facebook; Response: self-administered open answer | CESD |
| Ma et al. 2021 | LS | Examined how time spent on types of screen use was associated with depressive symptoms. | Sweden; 3556 (51%) | 8 grades | Self-report daily hours spent on social media; Response: >2, 2, 1, <1, 0 | Question of how often felt depressed |
| McAllister et al. 2021 | CS | Compared associations across specific screen media activities and examined associations with self-harm behaviors. | UK; 4243 (55%) | 13.75 (13–15) | Self-report time diary on one weekday and one weekend day from 4:00 am one day to 4:00 am the next day; for each 10 min time slot | SMFQ |
| Morin-Major et al. 2015 | CS | Explored the associations between Facebook and basal levels of cortisol among adolescents. | Canada; 94 (53%) | 14.50 (12–17) |
Self-report weekly time spent on Facebook; Response (hours): 1 (<1), 2 (2–5), 3 (6–10), 4 (11–15), 5 (16–20), 6 (>21) | CDI |
| Padilla-Walker et al. 2019 | CS | Explored the links between parental media monitoring and adolescents’ internalizing symptoms. | USA; 1155 (51%) | 10–20 | Self-report daily time spent on social media; Response: 1 (none), 2 (less than 30 min), 3 (31–60 min), 4 (1–2 h), 5 (2–3 h), 6 (3–4 h), 7 (5–6 h), 8 (7–8 h), and 9 (≥9 h) | CESD |
| Pantic et al. 2012 | CS | Investigated the relationship between social networking and depression in adolescent. | Serbia; 160 (68%) | 18.02 | Self-report daily time spent on social networking sites; Response: self-administered open answer | BDI |
| Sela et al. 2020 | CS | Tested the association between family environment and excessive internet use among adolescents. | Israel; 85 (41%) | 14.04 (12–16) | Objectively measure time logged in various social medias on the smartphone for 14 days; Response: average time per day spent on social media. | BDI |
| Shoshani et al. 2021 | LS | Examined the influence of the COVID-19 pandemic on children and adolescents’ mental health and well-being, and potential risk and protective moderators. | Israel; 1537 (52%) | 13.97 | Self-report daily hours spent on social media; Response: 0, <1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ≥7. | BSI |
| Story 2021 | CS | Assessed the link between the time spent on social networking sites and depression among 9th and 10th grade high school students. | USA; 85 (56.5%) | 14.88 (14–16) | Self-report the number of times and the number of min they spent on SNS daily. Response: sum of the min was divided by the sum of the times | PHQ |
| Tamura et al. 2017 | CS | Investigated the relationship between mobile phone use and insomnia and depression in adolescents. |
Japan; 295 (41%) | 16.20 (15–19) | Self-report daily time spent on social networking sites; Response (min): 0, <30, 30–60, 60–120, ≥120 | CESD |
| Tao et al. 2021 | CS | Assessed the relationships among social media use, individual and vicarious social media discrimination, and mental health. | USA; 407 (82%) | 16.47 (15–18) | Self-report Total time spent on social media per week; Response: multiple days/week by h/day | CESD |
| Thorisdottir et al. 2019 | CS | Documented the prevalence of social media use and investigate the relationship of both active and passive social media use to anxiety and depressed mood. | Iceland; 10,563 (50%) | 14–16 | Self-report daily hours on social media; Response: 1 (0) to 8 (≥6) | OSCD |
| Twenge et al. 2021 | CS | Examined associations between different types of screen activities and mental health. | UK; 11,423 (50%) | 13.77 (13–15) | Self-report hours spent on social networking or messaging sites on a normal weekday during term time; Response: <0.5, 0.5–0.99, 1–1.99, 2–2.99, 3–4.99, 5–6.99, ≥7 | SMFQ |
| Woods et al. 2016 | CS | Examined how social media use related to sleep quality, self-esteem, anxiety and depression. | UK; 467 | 11–17 | Self-report daily hours spent on social media; Response: 1 (<1) to 6 (>6) | HADS |
| Zielenski et al. 2021 | CS | Examined the relationship between Instagram use, social comparison, and depressive symptoms. | USA; 110 (56%) | 12–18 | Self-report daily hours spent on Instagram; Response:<1 h; 1–2 h; 2–3 h; 3–4 h; 4–5 h; >5 h | CESD |
Note: CS, cross-sectional study; LS, longitudinal study; CESD, the Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression scale; SMFQ, the short version of the Mood and Feelings Questionnaire; BDI, the Beck Depression Inventory; PHQ9, the Patient Health Questionnaire-9; CDI, the Children’s Depression Inventory; BSI, the Brief Symptom Inventory; HADS, the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale; OSCD, the scale of the Original Symptom Checklist-Depression dimension.