Table 3.

Summary of various food processing techniques dealing with the effect of pesticide residues.

Vegetables and Fruits	Pesticide Compounds	Operations	Conditions	Outcomes	References
Strawberries	Pyrimethanil Azoxystrobin Fenhexamid	Washing	The effect of ‘home’ washing with tap water and a commercially available vegetable detergent on residue levels was also studied.	Washing the fruit with tap water reduced the residues of azoxystrobin and fenhexamid but did not affect pyrimethanil residues. More significant amounts were removed when fruits were cleaned with a commercial detergent.	[180]
Peaches	Vinclozolin Procymidone Fenitrothion Chlorpyrifos-methyl	Washing Peeling Canning	Residues were determined in raw material.	Peeling was identified as the most effective procedure for reducing residues. However, thermal treatment (concentration and sterilization) substantially reduced residues.	[130]
Apricot	Diazinon, iprodione, procymidone, phosalone, and bitertanol	Sunlight- and oven-drying processes	Using sunlight and an oven to dry fruit made it more concentrated by about six times.	The sunlight treatment had more significant residue reductions than the oven procedure.	[181]
Tomatoes	Hexachlorobenzene (HCB), p,p-DDT, Lindane, Dimethoate, Profenos, Pirimiphos-methyl	Washing, Peeling, Juicing and Canning	Washing with acetic acid, sodium chloride, and tap water, freezing at −10 °C, juicing, peeling, and home canning at 100 °C for 30 min.	Washing with water or a detergent solution was necessary to decrease the intake of pesticide residues. In addition, freezing and juicing and peeling were essential to remove pesticide residues in the skin.	[182]
Tomatoes	Tralomethrin Pyridaben Pyrifenox	Washing Peeling Boiling	Residue levels in unprocessed and processed tomato samples were determined.	The washing processing factor results were 0.9 ± 0.3 for pyridaben, 1.1 ± 0.3 for pyrifenox, and 1.2 ± 0.5 for tralomethrin, whereas the peeling processing factors were 0.3 ± 0.2 for pyridaben and 0.0 ± 0.0 for both pyrifenox and tralomethrin.	[183]
Carrots, tomatoes	Captan Iprodione Mancozeb Metalaxyl Diazinon Endosulfan Parathion Cypermethrin Carbofuran	Washing Juicing	The distribution of nine pesticides between the juice and pulp of carrots and tomatoes during home culinary practices was investigated.	Washing of the produce removed more residue from carrots than from tomatoes, but it did not affect the relative distribution of the residues.	[184]
Peaches, oranges, Broccoli, cabbage, green beans, Winter squash, sweet potatoes, apples, cherries, peppers	3,5,6-Trichloro-2-pyridinol Chlorpyrifos	Juicing Canning Boiling Baking	The fate of the residues of benalaxyl, dimethoate, iprodione, metalaxyl, phosalone, procymidone, and vinclozolin in sunlight and oven raisin processing was studied.	Sunlight-drying was more effective for phosalone and vinclozolin, whereas oven-drying was more effective for iprodione and procymidone due to the washing effect rather than dehydration.	[185]
Apricot	Dimethoate, fenitrothion, ziram, omethoate	Sunlight and ventilated oven drying	Samples warm for 30 min at 100 °C and 12 h at 70 °C.	The half-lives of the pesticides ranged from 6.9 to 9.9 days, with pseudo-first-order kinetics and degradation rates of 6.9 to 9.9 days.	[186]
Spearmint, caraway, anise Lindane Chamomile, karkade	Lindane, Profenos, DDT, Pirimiphos-methyl, Endrin,	Boiling	2 g of the dry plant were left to boil in 100 mL deionized water for 5 min in a glass beaker. In the second method, 2 g of the dry sample was immersed in 100 mL of hot deionized water for 5 min (tea method).	Residues were not detected in the watery extract when the medicinal plant was boiled in water. Moreover, immersing the plants in hot water transferred pesticide residues to the aqueous extract.	[187]
Apple	Phosalone	Rotating ‘Hatmaker’ drum dryer	Steam pressure (5 bars), discharge rate (150 L/h), rotation speed (5–76 cm/s)	Phosalone levels were reduced from 22 to 77%. Manufacturers should seek the total elimination of surface residues, i.e., peeling the fruit to improve quality.	[188]
Apple pomace	kelthane	Apple pomace exposed to drying in the dark, sunlight and ultraviolet light irradiation	In the dark, under UV light or sunlight	The loss of kelthane residues was mainly due to volatility rather than photodecomposition.	[189]
Honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica)	Thiacloprid and thiamethoxam	Planting, drying, and tea brewing processes	Oven-drying at 30, 40, 50, 60, and 70 °C	Drying methods and tea brewing conditions can reduce the transfer of thiamethoxam and thiacloprid to humans.	[190]
Chili pepper	Tetraconazole, methoxyfenozide, clothianidin, diethofencarb, methomyl, indoxacarb, imidacloprid, diethofencarb, and chlorfenapyr	Oven drying	60 °C for 35 h	Clothianidin, diethofencarb, imidacloprid, and tetraconazole reductions (37–49%). Moderate decreases in methomyl (16%) and methoxyfenozide (22%). Indoxacarb and folpet levels were unaffected by drying.	[191]
Jujube	Cyhalothrin, bifenthrin, epoxicona-zole, tebuconazole, kresoxim-methyl, myclobutanil, hexaconazole, triadimefon, chlorpyrifos, malathion, dichlorvos	Drying by microwave	Microwave oven (700 W) for 4 min	The degradation rates ranged from 67% to 93%.	[192]
Okra	Profenofos, bifenthrin	sun drying	No specific conditions were found	Profenos up to 11% and bifenthrin, up to 75%. Bifenthrin was more affected by sun-drying because it is hydrolyzed in the presence of UV rays.	[193]
Okra	Carbaryl, malathion, endosulfan	Convective drying	No specific conditions were found	78% carbaryl, 91.8% malathion, and 57.4% endosulfan removal and sun-drying helped decrease endosulfan up to 5.5%.	[194]
Pleurotus ostreatus mushroom	Carbendazim	freeze-drying and sun drying	Direct sunlight (sun drying) and at −86 °C with a vacuum of 0.06 mbar (freeze-drying).	Direct sun-drying removed higher carbendazim amounts than freeze-drying, with removal rates ranging between 70 and 97%.	[195]
Kumquat candied fruit	Triazophos, chlorpyrifos, malathion, methidathion, and dimethoate	Convective drying	60–80 °C	Dimethoate, malathion, and triazophos had PF values more significant than one upon drying, which might be attributed to water loss.	[196]
Grape	Dimethoate, diazinon, chlorpyrifos, and methidathion	Oven and sun drying	Direct sunlight for 21 days and in an oven at 50 °C for 72 h, at 60 °C for 60 h, at 70 °C for 48 h, at 80 °C for 36 h	The greater the temperature, the faster pesticides degrade in grape drying processes.	[197]
Plum	Vinclozolin, procymidone, iprodione, diazinon, and bitertanol	Oven drying	Temperature: 30 min at 95 °C, 30 min at 90 °C, 16 h at 85 °C	Procymidone, iprodione, and bitertanol were lower in dried fruits than fresh fruits (0.6, 2.3, and 3.2 times, respectively).	[198]
Spring onion	Etofenprox	Drying	Freeze-dried (3 days) and the oven (80 °C for 24 h).	Oven-dried has a greater removal rate (85.5 percent) than freeze-dried (66.6 percent).	[199]
Shiitake mushroom	β-cyfluthri, λ-cyhalothrin, bifenthrin, procymidone, thiabendazole, carbendazim	Drying	Sunlight (26–33 °C, 20 days) and hot-air drying (30–53 °C in the first 10 h, 53–60 °C in the last 10 h)	The removal rate of pesticides by sunlight exposure drying (36.2–94.6%) was higher than that of hot-air drying (26.0–68.1%).	[200]
Red pepper	Fenitrothion and chlorpyriphos	Hot air drying and sun drying	No specific conditions were found	20–30 percent of residues were removed by drying in the sun or hot air.	[193,201]