Table 4.
The adjusted odds ratio of different daily coffee drinking volume in metabolic syndrome in three coffee types in Taiwanese participants aged 30–79 years.
| Overall | Male | Female | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Index | NCD | <1 cup/day | ≥1 cup/day | NCD | <1 cup/day | ≥1 cup/day | NCD | <1 cup/day | ≥1 cup/day |
| Group 1: | NCD | BC < 1 cup/day | BC ≥ 1 cup/day | NCD | BC < 1 cup/day | BC ≥ 1 cup/day | NCD | BC < 1 cup/day | BC ≥ 1 cup/day |
| No. of participants | 13,439 | 2603 | 2515 | 4879 | 1064 | 1055 | 8560 | 1539 | 1460 |
| No. of cases | 3607 | 692 | 617 | 1430 | 324 | 289 | 2177 | 368 | 328 |
| Model 1: AOR (95% CI) | Ref. | 0.90 (0.81–1.00) | 0.80 (0.72–0.90) | Ref. | 1.01 (0.86–1.19) | 0.82 (0.69–0.97) | Ref. | 0.83 (0.72–0.96) | 0.80 (0.69–0.93) |
| p-value | 0.051 | <0.001 * | 0.937 | 0.023 * | 0.009 * | 0.004 * | |||
| Model 2: AOR (95% CI) | Ref. | 0.93 (0.83–1.03) | 0.80 (0.72–0.90) | Ref. | 1.07 (0.90–1.26) | 0.82 (0.69–0.98) | Ref. | 0.84 (0.73–0.96) | 0.81 (0.69–0.94) |
| p-value | 0.156 | <0.001 * | 0.460 | 0.026 * | 0.014 * | 0.006 * | |||
| Group 2: | NCD | CC < 1 cup/day | CC ≥ 1 cup/day | NCD | CC < 1 cup/day | CC ≥ 1 cup/day | NCD | CC < 1 cup/day | CC ≥ 1 cup/day |
| No. of participants | 13,439 | 622 | 706 | 4879 | 209 | 256 | 8560 | 413 | 450 |
| No. of cases | 3607 | 188 | 185 | 1430 | 65 | 72 | 2177 | 123 | 113 |
| Model 1: AOR (95% CI) | Ref. | 0.95 (0.78–1.16) | 0.78 (0.64–0.95) | Ref. | 0.86 (0.61–1.22) | 0.88 (0.64–1.21) | Ref. | 0.98 (0.76–1.26) | 0.76 (0.59–0.98) |
| p-value | 0.621 | 0.015 * | 0.406 | 0.431 | 0.855 | 0.034 * | |||
| Model 2: AOR (95% CI) | Ref. | 0.93 (0.76–1.13) | 0.75 (0.62–0.92) | Ref. | 0.85 (0.60–1.21) | 0.82 (0.60–1.14) | Ref. | 0.95 (0.74–1.23) | 0.74 (0.57–0.95) |
| p-value | 0.457 | 0.005 * | 0.371 | 0.238 | 0.716 | 0.019 * | |||
| Group 3: | NCD | CM < 1 cup/day | CM ≥ 1 cup/day | NCD | CM < 1 cup/day | CM ≥ 1 cup/day | NCD | CM < 1 cup/day | CM ≥ 1 cup/day |
| No. of participants | 13,439 | 965 | 1466 | 4879 | 272 | 368 | 8560 | 693 | 1098 |
| No. of cases | 3607 (26.8%) | 220 | 285 | 1430 | 73 | 105 | 2177 | 147 (21.2%) | 180 |
| Model 1: AOR (95% CI) | Ref. | 0.98 (0.82–1.17) | 0.76 (0.66–0.89) | Ref. | 1.02 (0.75–1.41) | 1.00 (0.76–1.31) | Ref. | 0.96 (0.78–1.19) | 0.70 (0.58–0.84) |
| p-value | 0.809 | 0.001 * | 0.884 | 0.978 | 0.716 | <0.001 * | |||
| Model 2: AOR (95% CI) | Ref. | 1.01 (0.85–1.20) | 0.78 (0.67–0.91) | Ref. | 1.08 (0.78–1.49) | 1.02 (0.77–1.34) | Ref. | 0.98 (0.79–1.21) | 0.71 (0.59–0.86) |
| p-value | 0.924 | 0.002 * | 0.644 | 0.903 | 0.836 | <0.001 * |
* p < 0.05. Ref., reference. MetS, Metabolic syndrome; NCD, non-coffee drinker; BC, black coffee; CC, coffee with creamer; CM, coffee with milk. Group 1: the population of non-coffee drinkers and black coffee drinkers; Group 2: the population of non-coffee drinkers and black coffee with cream drinkers; Group 3: the population of non-coffee drinkers and black coffee with milk drinkers; Group4: the population of non-coffee drinkers and other drinkers. Model 1: reference = non-coffee consumer, adjusted for gender (for all participants), age, and body mass index. Model 2: reference = non-coffee consumer, adjusted for gender (for all participants), age, BMI, education level, marriage status, occupational status, place of residence, cigarette smoking status, secondhand smoke exposure, alcohol drinking, habitual tea drinking, regular exercise, vegetarian, daily sleep hours (less than 6 h), monthly income, and menopause (for female).