Table 1.

Factors associated with liver cirrhosis contribute to upper gastrointestinal cancer.

Factors	Possible Mechanism
Gastric erosion/ulcers, congestive gastropathy	chronic inflammation
Zinc deficiency	antifibrotic pathway antioxidant and inflammatory pathway cytokines (interleukin-6) endotoxins on gut blood flow zinc influx transports, zinc transporter
Alcohol consumption	tight junctions nuclear translocation of β catenin, ZONAB oxidative stress gene instability ADH ALDH ALDH2*-2 allele, ADH 1C*1/1
Tobacco use	ADH H. pylori
Gut microbiota	Gut–liver axis TGF-β pathway genes chemokines gastrin, somatostatin toll-like receptor signaling pathway PDA enzymes NF-κB activation cellular apoptosis