Table 1.
Summary of the Published Studies about EVs in LN
| EVs origin | Cellular origin | Markers | Associated Specific component | Samples | Techniques for analyzing characteristics | Study findings | References | Year |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| MVs | Podocyte | Annexin V/Podocalyxin | NA | Urine | Flow cytometry | Higher podocyte-derived MVs in LN and correlate with high activity indices, and increased proteinuria | [151] | 2019 |
| MVs | Mainly leukocytes | Platelet CD41a; leukocyte CD45; erythrocyte CD235a | HMGB1/HLA-DR/CX3CR1 | PPP/Urine | Flow cytometry | High frequencies of MP-HMGB1+ in circulation and urine of LN patients. Urinary MP-HMGB1+ could discriminate between patients with active and inactive LN. | [117] | 2019 |
| MVs | Mainly platelets | Mitochondria mitoTracker/TOM20/HK1; Platelet CD42a; T cell CD3 | Nucleic acids/IgG | Frozen PPP | Flow cytometry | Patients with signs of ongoing renal lupus activity (BILAG, A-C) had higher levels of mitoMVs and IgG-coated mitoMVs. | [167] | 2019 |
| MVs | Apoptotic endothelial cells | KM-2/LG11–2 | Acetylated chromatin | PPP | Flow cytometry | MVs containing acetylated chromatin drive ROS independent NET release in SLE patients with active LN. | [168] | 2017 |
| MVs | NA | Annexin V/G3BP | G3BP, C1q, immunoglobulins | PPP | Flow cytometry/Co-localization immune electron microscopy(IEM)/Nano-LC-MS/MS | Co-localization of G3BP positive MVs associated with ICs may deposit in the LN kidneys. | [22] | 2015 |
| MVs | Platelet/endothelial cell | Platelet Annexin V/CD41; endothelial cell Annexin V/CD62E | NA | PPP | Flow cytometry | High circulatory platelet microparticles and endothelial microparticles in LN patients can be used as new markers for dysfunctional platelet activation and endothelium. | [169] | 2015 |
| Exo | Tubular renal cells | NA | MiR-31/MiR-107/MiR-135b-5p | Urine | NanoSight/Cryo-TEM/Western blot | Urinary exosomal miR-135b-5p, miR-107, and miR-31 are promising novel markers for clinical outcomes, regulating LN renal recovery by HIF1A inhibition. | [166] | 2020 |
| Exo | NA | CD9/TSG101 | Let-7a/MiR-21 | Urine | NanoSight/Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)/Western blot | Down-regulation of let-7a and miR-21 in urine exosomes from LN patients during disease flare. | [164] | 2018 |
| Exo | NA | CD9/CD81 | MiR-3135b/MiR-654–5p/MiR-146a-5p | Urine | Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)/Western blot | LNIV-CC has a unique miRNA expression profile of urinary exosome and miR-3135b, miR-654–5p and miR-146a-5p in urinary exosomes could predict LNIV-CC. | [170] | 2018 |
| Exo | NA | CD9/AQP2/TSG101 | MiR-29c | Urine | Electron microscopy Western blot | Decreased miR-29c in exosomes in LN is associated with increased renal chronicity and predict early renal fibrosis in LN. | [165] | 2015 |
| Exo | NA | CD9/TSG101 | MiR-146a | Urine | Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)/Western blot | Exosomal miR-146a discriminates the presence of active LN. | [162] | 2015 |
| Exo | NA | NA | MiR-26a | Urine | NA | Increased miR-26a levels in urinary exosomes may serve as a marker of injured podocytes in LN. | [163] | 2014 |
| ABs | NA | NA | NA | Renal tissue | Periodic acid-Schiff methenamine silver | The presence of large numbers of apoptotic bodies in the glomeruli of Clq-deficient mice. | [171] | 1998 |
| ABs | NA | NA | NA | Renal tissue | Electron microscopy | The presence of apoptotic cells and apoptotic bodies in proliferated mesangial areas and within the glomerular capillaries. | [172] | 1995 |
MVs (Microvesicles), mitoMVs (mitochondria MVs), Exo (Exosomes), ABs (Apoptotic Bodies), PPP (platelet poor plasma), LNIV-CC ( Type IV lupus nephritis-cellular crescent), ROS (Reactive oxygen species), LN (Lupus Nephritis), ICs (Immune Complexes), HMGB1 (High-mobility group box 1), G3BP (Galectin-3 binding protein), HK1 (anti-hexokinase 1).