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Graphical abstract of PD-L1+ EVs in immune regulation. SCLC cell lines release EVs expressing membrane PD-L1. PD-L1+ EVs released by SCLC cells inhibit CD8+ T cells activation and cytotoxicity. SCLC patients containing higher PD-L1+ EVs significantly correlated with short progression-free survival. Molecules shown in green stimulate immune activation; molecules shown in red are immunosuppressive marker.
