Figure 2.

Models and tools to assess efficacy of engineered T cells. Currently used preclinical models, including 2D cell culturing techniques and xenograft models in NSG mice, have been unable to predict the lack of responses or relapses observed in some clinical trials. Organotypic 3D models and humanized and syngeneic mouse models that better recapitulate the intra-tumor heterogeneity and the immunosuppressive TME are being developed and used in combination with novel analytical tools (at single cell level) and imaging techniques to better predict the clinical efficacy of next-generation engineered T-cell therapies. 2D, two-dimensional; MHC, major histocompatibility complex; TME, tumor microenvironment.