Figure 2.

Overview of the models and tools used to predict engineered T cell-associated toxicity. Traditional preclinical models, including two-dimensional cell culturing techniques and xenograft models in NSG mice, have failed to predict engineered T cell-associated adverse events observed in the clinic. Recently, animal models that include humanized, transgenic and syngeneic mouse models, as well as primate models, have been proven useful to predict several complications observed in patients after chimeric antigen receptor T-cell infusion. Ex vivo human models such as organoids and organotypical models combined with innovative analytical tools and imaging techniques offer the opportunity to predict, in a personalized manner, some of the toxicities elicited by engineered T cells. GM-CSF, granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor; IFN-γ, interferon gamma; IL, interleukin; MHC, major histocompatibility complex; TCR, T-cell receptor; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor alpha.