Table 3.

Barriers to biogas implementation in Africa.

Category	Barrier	Reference
Technical	Inadequate feedstock supply	Hasan et al., (2020)
	Lack of education on biogas technology at different educational spheres.	Mukumba et al. (2016)
	Lack of information on economic feasibility	Tucho et al., (2016)
	Lack of land	Hasan et al., (2020)
	Absence of putative technology and grid infrastructure	Kemausuor and Ackom (2016)
	No clear energy policy and support	Kemausuor et al. (2018)
	Insufficient designs and construction of digesters	Mohammed et al., (2017)
	Lack of sufficient knowledge on biogas as dual ‘fuel production and waste management technology’.	Muvhiiwa et al. (2017)
Economic/Financial	Large initial investment costs	Muvhiiwa et al. (2017)
	High maintenance and operational costs	Roopnarain and Adeleke (2017); Nevzorova and Kutcherov (2019)
	Reluctance from financial institutions due to high risk and low recovery	Mittal et al. (2018)
	Lack of support from government to project developers	Sakah et al., (2017)
	High central bank rates = high lending rates and restricts long-term financing of projects	Schmidt and Dabur (2014)
	Competition with other investments	Hasan et al., (2020)
Government/Regulatory	Lack of financial policy	Hasan et al., (2020); Uhunamure et al. (2020).
	Lack of interest from government	Roopnarain and Adeleke (2017); Sakah et al., (2017)
	Lack of coherent and robust biogas strategy/policy	Hasan et al., (2020)
	Uncoordinated link-up between important stakeholders (central government agencies, research institutions and business firms).	Yousuf et al., (2016)
	Legislation does not accommodate for projects, too many documents requirements (e.g. licences, agreements) from various regulatory institutions which add to costs and opens an avenue for corruption	Pueyo (2018)
Global Market/Awareness	Volatile energy market	Kemausuor et al. (2018)
	Lack of demand from primary-end-user
	Competition with fossil fuels, opening avenues for sabotage	Kemausuor et al. (2018)
	Lack of private investment	Hasan et al., (2020)
	Lack of awareness on policies, technologies and processes	Nevzorova and Kutcherov (2019)
	Unreliable service delivery and utilities as too many risks associated with signing Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs) with them.	Pueyo (2018); Uhunamure et al. (2020).