Table 2.
Description of studies on employment and mental health.
| Authors Date |
Country | Study design | Study population | Measure of employment | Measure of health | Statistical Analysis | Main findings of employment and health | Quality |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ahmad, 2020 | Canada | Cross sectional survey | N = 49 Afghan refugees |
Employment status | PTSD: HTQ | Chi square | Employment was significantly associated with lower PTSD scores: prevalence of PTSD was zero in those employed and 59.1% in those unemployed (p = 0.02). | High |
| Ahmad, 2020 | Canada | Longitudinal study | N = 1924 Syrian refugees |
Employment status | Depression: PHQ-9 | Chi square Logistical regression |
Unemployment was significantly associated with higher prevalence of depression symptoms at both baseline (x2 = 16.7, p < 0.001) and year 2 (x2 = 7.8, p = 0.005). In the multinomial logistic model, employment was not significantly associated with depressive symptoms. |
Moderate |
| Alemi, 2015 | USA | Cross sectional survey | N = 130 Afghan refugees |
Employment status | General psychological distress: Afghan Symptom Checklist | Multivariate linear regression | Employment was not a significant predictor of psychological distress. | Moderate |
| Ao, 2016 | USA | Cross sectional survey | N = 423 Bhutanese refugees |
Employment status Unable to find work |
Suicide risk, ideation, and exposure: 19-item measure | Logistic regression | Inability to find work (aOR = 11.1; 95% CI = 2.4–51.5) was one of the main post-migration difficulties associated with past suicidal ideation. | Moderate |
| Aragon, 2019 | Italy | Cross sectional survey | N = 67 Chinese Asylum seekers |
Unemployment Problems at work Unable to find work |
PTSD: HTQ | Logistical regression | 52.2% of the participants reported being unable to find work as a post migration living difficulty and this significantly increased the likelihood of having PTSD (OR = 2.22, 95% CI = 1.16–4.27, p = 0.016). | Moderate |
| Baranik, 2018 | USA | Cross sectional survey | N = 159 Refugees |
Vocational stressor | Anxiety: Warr's measure. Depression: CES-D scale Sleep disturbance: 3 items questionnaire |
T-test and Regression Analysis | Refugees experiencing discrimination as a vocational stressor reported higher levels of depression (p < 0.01), anxiety (p < 0.05) and sleep disturbances (p <0.01) than those who did not report discrimination. Only the association between discrimination and depression and anxiety held after controlling for other variables. | Moderate |
| Beiser, 2001 | Canada | Prospective longitudinal study | N = 608 South-East Asian Refugees |
Employment status | Depression: Inventory of 45 items | Covariance structural equation model | Unemployment only became significantly related to depression at year 2 (r = 0.113) and year 10 (r = 0.095). At 10 years follow up unemployment was associated with increased levels of depression among men but not among women. | High |
| Beiser, 2006 | Canada | Cross sectional survey | N = 647 South-East Asian refugees |
Employment status | Depression: Depressive Affect Measure Scale | Multivariate regression | Unemployment had significant and positive associations with depression levels (B = 1.57, SE = 0.64), p < 0.05. Unemployed refugees who had a strong commitment to their ethnic identity had a higher depression score (p < 0.001). For refugees endorsing a weak ethnic identity, unemployment had no impact on depression scores (p > 0.05). | High |
| Barbieri, 2020 | Italy | Cross sectional survey | N = 122 African refugees and asylum seekers |
Employment status | PTSD: PCL-5 | Logistic regression | Employment status did not significantly predict PTSD symptom severity. | High |
| Brigg, 2013 | New Zealand | Cross sectional survey and interview | N = 100 Refugees |
Employment status | Demoralisation: Demoralisation Scale | ANOVA | Participants who were unemployed had a significantly higher demoralisation score than those who were employed (p < 0.001). | Low |
| Bhui, 2006 | UK | Cross sectional survey | N = 143 Somali refuges |
Employment status | Mental disorders: M.I.N.I | Logistical regression | In the regression model, employment (full time or part-time) was associated with lower levels of mental disorder (aOR = 0.03, 95% CI = 0.01–0.61, p < 0.05) | High |
| Blight, 2006 | Sweden | Cross sectional survey | N = 413 Bosnia-Herzegovina refugees |
Employment status Yearly Economic Activity (EA) |
General mental health: Goteborg Quality of Life instrument | Logistical regression | Unemployment was associated with a higher level of symptoms of poor mental health for men (OR = 8.01 (2.36–27.23) p = 0.001) but not women (OR 1.16 (0.46–2.40), p = 0.75). For women, working for longer periods was associated with poor mental health (OR 4.52 (1.25–16.31), p = 0.02). | Moderate |
| Bogic, 2012 | Germany Italy UK |
Cross sectional survey | N = 854 Former Yugoslavia Refugees |
Employment status | Mental Disorders: M.I.N.I | Multivariate logistical regression | Higher rates of mood disorders (major depression, dysthymia, hypomania, mania) were associated with being unemployed (aOR = 1.99(1.35–2.93, p = 0.001). Unemployment was not significantly associated with other mental disorders including PTSD anxiety disorders and substance use disorders. | High |
| Briderkirk, 2021 | Canada | Longitudinal study | N = 577 Syrian refugees |
Hourly wage Quality of employment Satisfaction with wage and job Job appropriateness |
Stress: PSS-10 General mental health: RAND-36 |
Correlations Hierarchical regression |
General mental health was positively correlated with satisfaction with current wage (r = 0.28, p < 0.001), job appropriateness (r = 0.15, p < 0.001), job satisfaction (r = 0.32, p < 0.001), perceived control, (r = 0.51, p < 0.001). In the regression, general mental health was higher among refugees making enough money (B = 0.74, p = 0.01) and satisfied with their job (B = 0.64, p = 0.04). Job appropriateness and hourly wage did not significantly predict general mental health | Moderate |
| Bryant, 2019 | Australia | Cross sectional study | N = 1767 Refugees |
Work as a post migration stressor | Prolonged Grief Disorder: 4 item self reported-screening measure | Chi square | Refugees with probable Prolonged Grief Disorder were more likely to be unemployed. Only 5% those with PGD were employed compared to 27.8% with no PGD (p < 0.001) | Low |
| Campbell, 2018 | UK | Longitudinal study | N = 5678 baseline N = 939 at the third follow-up, 21 months after baseline |
Employment status Current job appropriateness for skills and qualifications |
Emotional wellbeing: Question from (SF-36) |
Ordered logistic regression | In the unadjusted cross-sectional analyses, refugees who were unemployed or have a job lower than one's skills and qualifications had higher odds of poorer emotional wellbeing in (p < 0.05). However, in the longitudinal analysis it was no longer significant. | High |
| Carlsson, 2006 | Denmark | Longitudinal study | N = 139 Refugees from Iran, Iraq and Lebanon |
Employment status | PTSD: HTQ Anxiety & Depression: HSCL-25 Wellbeing: WHOQOL-Bref |
Multiple linear regression | Being employed was negatively correlated with depression and anxiety scores, HSCL-25 total (β = −0.33, p < 0.001), HSCL-25 depression (β = −0.33, p < 0.001), HSCL-25 anxiety(β = -0.29, p < 0.01), HTQ PTSD (β = -0.32, p < 0.01). Employment/self-employment was positively correlated with WHOQOL Bref mental (β = 0.49, p < 0.001) and WHOQOL Bref physical (β = 0.27, p < 0.001) |
High |
| Cetrez, 2021 | Sweden | Cross sectional survey | N = 140 Iraqi Refugees |
Employment status | Mental health: self-perceived health from the PC-PTSD screen | Descriptive statistics | Unemployment (68.4%) was one of the most commonly given explanations of mental ill-health | Moderate |
| Cochran, 2013 | USA | Cross sectional survey | N = 579 Bhutanese refugees |
Being unable to find work | Suicide ideation | Logistic regression | Being unable to find work (AOR = 11.1, CI (2.4–51.1) was one of the main post-arrival difficulties associated with suicidal ideation. | Moderate |
| Cooper, 2019 | Australia | Longitudinal study | Baseline, N = 2399 Wave 2, N = 2009 Wave 3, N = 1894 Refugees and asylum seekers |
Employment status | High Risk of Mental Illness: K6 PTSD: PTSD-8 |
Generalized linear mixed models | Unemployment was not a significant predictor of mental illness. | High |
| De Vroome, 2010 | Netherlands | Cross sectional survey | N = 3269 Refugees |
Employment status Occupational status: International Socio-Economic Index (ISEI) |
Depression: 4 item measure created for the study General health: self-rated 5-point scale |
Binary logistic regression (employment variable) Linear regression (occupational status variable) |
Depression was negatively associated with the odds of employment (OR = −0.192, SE = 0.044, p < 0.01) and occupational status (B = −2.110, SE = 0.750, p < 0.05). General health problems were negatively associated with odds of employment (OR = −0.274, SE = 0.030, p < 0.01) and occupational status (B = −3.951, SE = 0.545, p < 0.01) |
Moderate |
| Di Thiene, 2021 | Sweden | Prospective longitudinal study | N = 2895 refugees N = 3684 Migrants N = 26936 Swedish born |
Long-term unemployment (LTU) Long-term sickness absence (LTSA) Disability pension (DP) |
Common mental disorders (depressive, anxiety, stress-related disorder according to the ICD-10) | Cox proportional hazard regression models | For those with common mental disorders, the adjusted risk estimates of long-term unemployment were higher for refugees from Africa, Asia and Europe outside EU25 (HR: 2.39, HR: 2.16 and HR: 1.61, respectively), compared to Swedish born individuals | High |
| Drescher, 2021 | Switzerland Jordan Turkey |
Cross sectional survey | N = 57 Switzerland N = 61 Jordan N = 46 Turkey Refugees and asylum seekers |
Employment | Psychological distress: K10 Psychological functioning: WHODAS |
Descriptive statistics | In the Switzerland sample those who showed increased psychological distress (K10) and decreased psychological functioning (WHODAS), 18 (32%) expressed employment concerns, 16 (28%) stated concerns about finding a job/suitable job. | Moderate |
| Drydakis, 2022 | Greece | Longitudinal study | N= Refugees | Written work contract: Y/N Exposure to workplace abuse/threats: Y/N Hourly wage lower than the corresponding national minimum wage: Y/N |
Physical health: EQ-VAS Depression: CESD |
Correlation Random effect regression Model |
Physical health is negatively associated with the probability of workers not having a written contract of employment (r = − 0.61, p < 0.01) and with the probability of workers experiencing insults and/or threats in their present job (r = −0.45, p < 0.01). The estimates suggest a positive association between depression and workers not having a written contract of employment (coef = 4.312, p < 0.01, or 18.5%), workers receiving a net hourly wage lower than the corresponding national minimum (coef = 5.005, p < 0.01, or 28.5%), and workers experiencing insults and/or threats in their present job (coef = 3.915, p <0.01, or 13.3%) |
Moderate |
| Eisen, 2020 | USA | Longitudinal study | N = 78 Torture surviving asylum seekers |
Employment status | PTSD: HTQ-30 Anxiety and Depression: HSCL-25 |
Multiple regression analysis | Employment status was not independently associated with a change in PTSD symptom levels or depressive symptom levels. Participants' symptoms improved over time (B = −0.254, p = 0.001), independent of changes in measured post-migratory factors such as employment and housing. | Low |
| Grochtdreis, 2020 | Germany | Cross sectional survey | N = 6821 Refugees and asylum seekers |
Employment status | Physical and mental health status: SF12 | Linear regressions | Persons that were employed had higher mean PCS and MCS scores than unemployed persons (56.0 and 50.8 vs. 53.1 and 47.6). Unemployed persons had lower PCS scores than employed persons (B = −1.6 (95% CI-2.42; −0.77), p < 0.001). Unemployment was statistically associated with lower MCS scores (B = −2.9 (95% CI = −4.01; 1.76), p < 0.001) |
High |
| Helgesson, 2021 | Sweden | Longitudinal study | N = 239,742 Refugees N = 4133898 Swedish-born |
Employment status Disability pension |
ICD-10 somatic/mental disorders | Multivariate Cox Regression models | Refugees with specific somatic/mental disorders especially neoplasms (HR: 1.72; 95% CI: 1.56 to 1.91), diseases in the musculoskeletal system (HR: 1.57; 95% CI: 1.47 to 1.67)) and circulatory system (HR: 1.33; 95% CI: 1.22 to 1.45) and depressive disorders (HR: 1.31; 95% CI: 1.21 to 1.41) had a higher risk of disability pension compared with Swedish- born individuals with similar disorders. | High |
| Hermansson, 2003 | Sweden | Longitudinal study | Total = 44 male refugees tortured (n = 22) non-tortured (n = 22) | Employment status | Anxiety & Depression: HSCL-25 PTSD: PTSS-10 Psychological Well-being: Self-rating scale, “How do you feel?” |
Spearman correlation | In the non-tortured group, being employed was negatively correlated with HSCL-25 anxiety (rs = −0.70, p < 0.001), HSCL-25 depression (rs = −0.66, p < 0.01) and HSCL-25 total (rs = −0.69, p < 0.001. There was also a significant negative correlation between employment and PTSS-10 (rs = −0.56, p < 0.01). There was a significant positive correlation between being employed and well-being (rs = 0.49, p < 0.05). No significant associations between employment and mental health measures were observed in the tortured group. |
Moderate |
| Hermansson, 2002 | Sweden | Longitudinal study | Same sample as above | Employment status | Anxiety & Depression: HSCL-25 PTSD: PTSS-10 Psychological Well-being: Self-rating scale |
Wilcoxon rank sum | Unemployment was associated with a lower level of mental health according to the measure of HSCL-25 anxiety (W = −2.28, p < 0.05) and PTSS-10 (W = −2.06, p < 0.05). Unemployment was not significantly associated with depression or psychological wellbeing. | Moderate |
| Hocking, 2015 | Australia | Cross sectional survey | N = 98 Asylum seekers |
Employment status | PTSD: HTQ Anxiety & Depression: HSCL-25 |
Mann-Whitney test Multiple regression analyses |
Mann-Whitney showed that being employed was associated with reduced severity of anxiety (U = 793, p = 0.03, n = 95) and depressive (U = 807, p = 0.04, n = 95) symptoms. Asylum seekers who were not employed were more likely to be diagnosed with MDD (OR = 2.61, 95% CI, 1.11–6.13; p = 0.03, n = 95). |
High |
| Hunkler, 2020 | Germany | Cross sectional survey | N = 275 Syrian Refugees |
Employment status | General health: self-rated 5-point scale Mental health: “generally feel anxious, depressed and/or stressed” Y/N |
Structural integration model | Overall health significantly increased the probability of employment by 3 percent (p < 0.05), while mental state showed no significant effect. | High |
| Jeon, 2009 | South Korea | Cross sectional survey | N = 367 North Korean Refugees |
Employment status | Depression: The Korean version of CES-D | Multiple regression | People without occupations were 2.289 times (95% CI, 1.386–3.780) more likely to report depressive symptoms than those with occupations. In the multiple regression analysis, having no occupation [OR = 2.198, 95% CI, 1.247–3.873] was correlated with depressive symptoms. | High |
| Kashyap, 2019 | USA | Longitudinal study | N = 323 Refugees and asylum seekers |
Employment status | Depression: PHQ-9 PTSD: HTQ Self-reported chronic pain: Y/N |
Linear regression | Employment alone was not significantly associated with PTSD or depression. However, employment and stable housing together significantly moderated the relationship between lower chronic pain and reduced PTSD. Among individuals who reported experiencing chronic pain at the 6-month follow-up assessment (N = 170), lower chronic pain was associated with having stable housing (B = −0.89 (SE = 0.44), p < 0.05, β = −0.16) and with being employed (B = −0.83 (SE = 0.37), p < 0.05, β = −0.17. | Moderate |
| Kim, 2011 | South Korea | Cross sectional survey | N = 144 North Korean refugees |
Employment status | Psychological problems: Symptom Checklist-90-Revised (SCL-90-R): Depression: CES-D |
Stepwise logistic regression | Unemployment was related to a higher prevalence of obsessive-compulsive symptoms (B = 2.769(0.022), p = 0.05) and psychoticism (B = 2.013(0.037), p < 0.05). No significant relationship between employment status and other psychiatric symptoms including somatization, interpersonal sensitivity, depression, anxiety, hostility, phobic anxiety, paranoid ideation | High |
| Kim, 2016 | USA | Cross sectional survey | N = 656 Latino and Asian refugees |
Employment status | Self-rated mental health: 5 point scale Mental disorders: CIDI interview |
OLS regressions Logistic regression analyses |
Being unemployed was not significantly associated with self-reported mental health, mood disorders or anxiety disorders. Refugees who were not in the labor force had significantly higher odds (OR = 6.48 95% CI (2.05–20.49), p < 0.01) of being diagnosed with any of the three mood disorders (ie major depression, dysthymia, and intermittent explosive) measured in the survey |
High |
| Laban, 2005 | Netherlands | Cross sectional Survey and interview |
N = 294 Asylum seekers |
Employment status - No permission to work - Work below skill level |
Mental disorders: CIDI interview | Multivariate logistic regression | Almost 75% of the asylum seekers who stayed more than 2 years in the Netherlands mentioned lack of work as an important stressor. No work/work below level had the highest OR for lifetime prevalence of depressive disorder (OR = 1.32 95%CI (1.08–1.61), one or more psychiatric disorders (OR 1.44, 95%CI (1.15–1.81) and one or more psychiatric disorders (excluding PTSD) (OR = 1.37, 95% CI (1.11–1.69). No work/work below level was not significantly associated with anxiety disorder. | High |
| Marshall, 2005 | USA | Cross sectional Interview |
N = 490 Cambodian refugees |
Employment status | PTSD and depression: CIDI interview Alcohol use disorder: Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test |
Bivariate Odds Ratio | Unemployment was associated with higher rates of major depression (OR = 4.44, 95% CI (2.51–7.87), but not PTSD or alcohol use disorder. | Moderate |
| Maximova, 2010 | Canada | Cross sectional interview | N = 525 Refugees |
Employment Status | Self-rated changes in mental and physical health status | Linear regression | Of the post-migratory factors studied being employed (either part-time or full time) was associated with greater improvements in mental health (Beta = 0.13, 95%CI (0.01–0.19), p < 0.025). Employment status did not have a significant relationship with physical health. |
Moderate |
| Newman, 2018 | Australia | Cross sectional survey | N = 190 Refugees |
Perceived organizational support (POS): 6 items scale Perceived supervisor support (PSS): 6 item questionnaire |
Psychological wellbeing: Satisfaction with life scale | Ordinary least squares (OLS) regression | The relationship between POS and psychological wellbeing was fully mediated by psychological capital. The relationship between Perceived supervisor support (PSS) and psychological wellbeing was not significant | High |
| Niederkrotenthaler, 2020 | Sweden | Longitudinal study | N = 2017 Refugees |
Duration of time unemployed Duration of Sickness absence Disability pension |
Suicide attempt: ICD-10: X60-84 or Y10-34 Suicide: ICD-10 codes X60-84 or Y10-34 in the Causes of Death Register |
Cox regression models | No significant interaction effects were found for refugee status and employment measures regarding suicide attempts and suicide. | Moderate |
| Niederkrotenthaler, 2020 | Sweden | Longitudinal study | N = 216, 930 Refugees |
Long term unemployment (>180 days) | Mental disorders: ICD-10 codes | Cox proportional-hazard regression models. | Refugees without a mental disorder had an adjusted long-term unemployment HR of 2.68 (95% CI 2.65–2.71), which was above the aHR of refugees (aHR 2.33, 95% CI 2.29–2.38) with mental disorders. Regarding the risk of long-term unemployment due to specific mental disorders, the highest aHRs were seen for anxiety disorders (aHR 2.09), PTSD (aHR 2.03), and other stress-related disorders (aHR 2.25). Refugee status was a strong risk factor of long-term unemployment (HR 2.7), and neither mental disorders in general nor specific mental disorders further added to this risk. |
Moderate |
| Renner, 2021 | Germany | Cross sectional survey | N = 133 Syrian refugees |
Employment status | Anxiety: GAD-7 Depression: PHQ-9 PTSD: PDS-5 Somatization: PHQ-15 |
Multiple linear regression | Employment status was not significantly associated with PTSD, anxiety, depression or somatization. | High |
| Salo, 2015 | USA | Cross sectional survey | N = 203 Vietnamese refugees |
Job satisfaction: 11-item scale | Psychological distress: Indochinese version of HSCL-25 | Structural equation model (SEM) | Job satisfaction was the only direct predictor of psychological distress in this study (b = −0.15, SE = 0.05, 95% CI (−0.25, −0.05), p < 0.01). Job satisfaction fully mediated the relationship between acculturation and psychological distress with a small effect (b = −0.07, p < 0.05). | Moderate |
| Sidorchuk, 2017 | Sweden | Cross sectional survey | N = 3619 Refugees |
Employment status | Psychological distress: GHQ-12 | Logistic regression | Unemployed or temporarily employed refugees had higher odds of distress (OR 2.91, 95% CI 2.20 to 3.85) when compared with permanently/self-employed refugees. Refugee women belonging to the temporarily employed group (OR 2.59 (1.53–4.39)) had higher odds of psychological distress compared with their male counterparts (OR 1.67 (0.88–3.14). | High |
| Sonne, 2021 | Denmark | Randomised Control Trial | N = 321 Refugees |
Full time employment | PTSD: HTQ Anxiety and depression: HSCL-25, HAM-D and HAM-A |
Hierarchical multiple regression analyses | Full-time occupation was positively associated with improvement in HSCL-anxiety and HSCL-depression, but this effect disappeared when the level of functioning (baseline GAF-F) was added. Full-time occupation was not significantly associated with the other treatment outcomes including HTQ, HAM-A, and HAM-D | Moderate |
| Sulaiman-Hill, 2012 | New Zealand Australia |
Mixed methods Cross sectional survey + qualitative interview |
N = 81 Afghan and Kurdish refugees |
Employment status | Subjective Wellbeing: Personal Well Being Index Psychological distress: K10 |
Mann Whitney U test | Refugees who were not working had a higher risk of psychological distress (Median K10 score = 19), than those who were working (Median K10 score = 16) Z = 2.016, p < 0.05. There was no significant difference in subjective wellbeing between the employed and unemployed groups (p = 0.242). | Moderate |
| Teodorescu, 2012 | Norway | Cross sectional survey | N = 61 Refugees |
Employment status | PTSD: Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-TR PTSD Module (SCID) Mental disorders: MINI, Structured Interview for Disorders of Extreme Stress (SIDES) Psychological distress: HSCL-25 PTSD: Life events checklist, impact of event scale-revised |
Kendall's tau-bs Spearman's rho correlations |
Unemployment status was positively associated with PTSD (τb = 0.316, p < 0.01) and PTSD + Disorders of extreme stress not otherwise specified (DESNOS) (τb = 0.276, p < 0.05) and total mental health diagnoses (τb = 0.290 p < 0.05). Unemployment was also positively associated with depression symptom severity HSCL-25 (r = 0.289 p < 0.05). |
Moderate |
| Tonsing, 2020 | USA | Cross Sectional Survey | N = 242 Chin-Burmese Refugees |
Employment related stressors | Psychological distress: K10 | Hierarchical regression analysis | PMLD4 employment stressors were not significantly associated with psychological distress. | High |
| Vinokurov, 2000 | USA | Cross sectional Survey |
N = 206 Former Soviet Union refugees |
Work status - Unemployed - Underemployed - Employed in one's field of professional expertise |
Life satisfaction: Perceived Quality of Life scale | MANOVA | Those employed in a similar job to before arrival reported significantly higher life satisfaction than the underemployed who in turn reported a greater degree of life satisfaction than the unemployed (F = 20.75, p < 0.0005) | Moderate |
| Walther, 2020 | Germany | Cross sectional survey | N = 4325 Asylum seekers and refugees |
Employment status | Psychological distress: PHQ-4 Life satisfaction: Single item measure |
Pooled multiple, hierarchical linear regressions | Currently working is associated with reduced levels of distress (p < 0.01), but only for male respondents. Employment is not associated with life satisfaction | High |
| Walther, 2020 | Germany | Cross sectional survey | N = 2639 Refugees |
Employment: Y/N | Psychological distress: RHS-13 | Poisson regression model | Male refugees who reported psychological distress had a lower likelihood of employment (risk ratio 0.67 (0.52–0.86)) and reduced participation in integration courses (RR 0.90 (0.81–0.99)). | High |
| Warfa, 2012 | UK USA |
Cross sectional survey | N = 189 Somali refugees London group = 143 Minneapolis = 43 |
Employment: Y/N Type of work: Skilled/Not skilled |
Mental disorders: M.I.N.I | Logistic Regression | Employment status was found to have one of the biggest impacts on reducing the odds of major depression and aggregated psychological disorders (OR = 2.419, 0.70–8.34, 0.162; OR = 2.372, 0.51–10.95, 0.269) respectively. | High |
| Wright, 2016 | USA | Longitudinal study | N = 286 Iraqi refugees |
Employment: Y/N | PSTD: PCL—Civilian version Depression: HADS |
Hierarchical Logistic regression | None of the mental health factors alone (baseline PTSD, baseline depression, pre-displacement trauma, post displacement trauma) was significant in predicting unemployment two years after arrival to the US. However, the interaction of the pre-and post-displacement trauma was predictive of employment status (β = 0.05, Wald = 4.19, OR = 1.05, p < 0.05). | High |
| Yalim, 2020 | USA Turkey |
Cross sectional survey | N = 185 Syrians refugees USA sample N = 82 Turkey sample N = 103 |
Employment status | Anxiety and Depression: HSCL-25 | Hierarchical regression model | Employment status was not associated with HSCL-25 total score in the Turkey or USA sample. | High |