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Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria.
| PECOT | Inclusion | Exclusion |
|---|---|---|
| Population of interest | Adult (≥18 years) undergoing spinal fusion (single-level or multilevel; cervical or thoracolumbar) | Cancer, infection, and trauma |
| Exposure | Persons smoking tobacco (current, defined as smoking within 1 year prior to surgery) | Smokeless tobacco |
| Comparison | Persons not smoking tobacco (non-smokers) | |
| Outcomes | Risk of nonunion | Delayed union |
| Time | Nonunion at ≥1 year | Included patients with follow-up <1 year |
