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. 2022 May 23;20:242. doi: 10.1186/s12951-022-01425-6

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 1 — The primary hypothesis of this study. We fabricated brain-targeted multifunctional biomimetic heptapeptide loaded exosomes for the treatment of IS. Heptapeptide loaded macrophage derived exosomes (EXO-Hep) targeted brain and inhibited Drp1/Fis1 interaction to improve the mitochondrial function of astrocyts. As a result, more healthy astrocytic mitochondria were secreted from astrocytes and transferred into neurons for reducing mitochondria-mediated damage of neurons. Finally, EXO-Hep ameliorated IS injury by reducing infarct area and improving neurological performance in tMCAO rats