Table 2.

3D‐printed skull base simulation models

Study (first author surname, year of publication)	Procedure studied	Primary outcome
London Jr., 2021	Pediatric skull base/craniopharyngioma resection	Fidelity of skeletonization of the carotid arteries and sella face
Maza, 2019	ICAI	Time to hemostasis, estimated blood loss, trainee self‐confidence
Zheng, 2018	Skull base surgery	Anatomic fidelity and educational value assessed on the questionnaire
Zhang, 2018	Sinus & skull base	Educational value assessed on the questionnaire
Hsieh 2018	Skull base surgery	Anatomic Accuracy, endoscopic anterior craniofacial resection, transpterygoid, and transclival approaches.
Muto, 2017	ICAI	Educational value assessed on the questionnaire
Favier, 2017	Compares four 3D‐printed model to a cadaver for skull base surgery training	3D printing material best suited for training
Wen, 2016	Skull base surgery	Drilling, curetting, and aspirating performance
Tai, 2016	Endoscopic endonasal drilling techniques	Content validity
Shah, 2016	Skull base surgery	Identification of anatomic structures
Oyama, 2015	Skull base surgery	Exploratory study
Narayan, 2015	Skull base surgery	Ease of learning endoscopic skull base exposure and drilling techniques
de Notaris, 2013	Various endoscopic endonasal approaches	Descriptive report
Okuda, 2011	Transphenoidal resection of pituitary adenoma	Surgical technique using SurgTrainer & egg
Preoperative planning
Huang, 2019	Pituitary macroadenoma resection	Operative performance in trainees who had pre‐op 3D models versus that of trainees who did not
Lin, 2018	Sellar tumor resection	Fidelity
Shinomiya, 2018	Pituitary adenoma resection	Utility in surgical planning

Abbreviations: 3D, three‐dimensional; CSF, cerebrospinal fluid; ICAI, internal carotid artery injury.