TABLE 1.

Osteogenic pathways and molecular mediators.

Cellular event	Signaling mechanisms	References
Stimulation of differentiation	EGFR transactivation and Mek-Erk1 activation; activation of AMPK signaling followed by the upregulation of FOXO3a and Runx2; increase in miR-92b-5p and inhibition of ICAM-1; downregulation of circ_0003865; suppression of GAS1	Radio et al. (2006), Lee et al. (2018), Li et al. (2019b), Wang et al. (2021)
Inhibition of bone marrow adipogenesis	Downregulation of PPARγ; upregulation of lnc RNA H19 to spongemiR-541-3p	Maria et al. (2018), Han et al. (2021)
Protection against ROS and inflammation	Upregulation of antioxidases; activation of canonical and non-canonical wnt pathway; inhibition of NF-κB pathway; attenuation of SMURF1 and maintenance of BMP-Smad1 signaling; suppression of Erk activation	Emamgholipour et al. (2016), Qiu et al. (2019), Li et al. (2019a), Lian et al. (2016), Zhang et al. (2016)
Protection against glucotoxicity	Attenuation of ER stress through PERK–eIF2α-ATF4-CHOP signaling; attenuates senescence by downregulating p16, p21, p53, and γH2AX; upregulation of Sirt-1; activation of Nrf2-HO-1 pathway	Zhou et al. (2020a), Gong et al. (2021), Ma et al. (2020a)
Protection against glucocorticoid-induced osteoblast differentiation	Activation of PI3K/Akt and BMP-Smad signaling	Zhao et al. (2020)