TABLE 3.
Compounds that inhibit the formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and their mechanisms based on the categories of inhibitory pathways.
| Category | Inhibitory pathway | Substance | Inhibitory mechanism | References |
| A | Maintain and stabilise the protein structure | Phytosterols | Interacts with lysine residues of BSA | (100) |
| Anthraquinones | Interacts with amino acid residues in HSA to maintain protein structure | (101) | ||
| Folic acid | Binds to HSA and is stabilised by hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonding | (102) | ||
| B | Chelation of transition metals | Pyridoxamine | Binds metal ions to form complexes and inhibits oxidative degradation steps after the generation of Amadori products | (105) |
| PTB, PMTB | Chelated with Cu2+ ions | (106) | ||
| C | Capture and block dicarbonyl compounds | Aminoguanidine | Nucleophilic addition reaction captures carbonyl groups formed by oxidative cleavage of Amadori products and prevents rearrangement and degradation | (109) |
| Phloridzin | Capture MGO and GO via groups at the 3 and 5 positions of ring A | (112) | ||
| ECG | The hydroxyl group on the A ring traps MGO to form an ECG-MGO adduct | (111) | ||
| Quercetin | The C-6 and C-8 positions of the A ring trap MGO to scavenge dicarbonyl compounds | (113) | ||
| Carnosine | Reduces the contents of CML and pentoglycoside in skin by reducing the number of MGO reactive groups | (110) | ||
| D | Neutralise, inhibit and scavenge free radicals | Lotus seedpod | Antioxidant properties | (116, 117) |
| Milk thistle | Powerful antioxidant properties, reducing ROS formation | (119) | ||
| Red maple leaf phenolic extract | Reduces MGO-induced oxidative stress in HaCaT cells | (120) | ||
| E | Activation of the glyoxalase detoxification system | Pterostilbene | Increases the expression level of GLO-1 and increases the content of GSH to activate the glyoxalase defence system | (121) |
| L. erythrorhizon root | Upregulation of GLO-1 and GSH synthesis genes activates the glyoxalase system | (122) | ||
| F | Inhibition of AR | Pumpkin polysaccharide | Hydrogen bonds interact with residues on the enzyme side chains, and ionic bonds interact with the positively charged nicotinamide ring on the coenzyme | (125) |
| Naringenin | It binds to the NADPH binding site of AR to form a stable complex, and interacts with the key residues Trp20 and His 10 of AR to inhibit AR activity | (126) | ||
| G | Activation of the proteolytic system | N. alba flower extract | Removal and recycling of accumulated AGEs in the skin as an autophagy agonist | (87) |
| H | Regulation of AGE-RAGE signalling | DNA aptamers | Inhibits the binding of AGEs to RAGE and blocks AGE-RAGE signalling | (131) |
| Resveratrol | Significantly reduces RAGE expression by activating PPAR-γ and upregulates SR-A | (132) | ||
| B. ceiba L. calyx | Regulation of RAGE expression reduces oxidative stress | (133) | ||
| Curcumin | Inhibits ERK activity and upregulates PPAR-γ to induce AGE-R1 expression | (136) | ||
| I | Disrupt protein cross-links | Chebulic acid (CA) | Inhibit the cross-linking of AGEs with collagen and disrupts the collagen cross-linked structure | (137) |
| Seaweed extract | Fragmentation of AGEs and collagen cross-links | (138) |