TABLE 1.

Direct effect of reviewed studies.

First author, year, country	Direct association
Racine et al. (2018), Canada	×
McDonnell and Valentino (2016), United States	○ (child maltreatment), × (family dysfunction)
Sun et al. (2017), United States	○
Folger et al. (2018), United States	○
Chang et al. (2021), Taiwan	×
Coe et al. (2020), United States	○

○: means significant effect, × : means insignificant effect.