Table 4.
Compilation of in vitro and in vivo studies indicating the positive effect of colored wheat on human health.
| S. No. | Country | Wheat | Model | Method | Extraction Solvent | Effect | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Russia | Purple (grain) | Mouse model of Alzheimer's disease | NA | NA | Prolonged memory extinction; As functional nutrition at the early stages of neurodegenerative disorders | Tikhonova et al. (77) |
| 2. | India | Purple, Black | Mouse model of high fat diet | NA | NA | Reduction in body weight gain, fat pad, total cholesterol, triglyceride, free fatty acid levels in serum, restoration of blood glucose insulin resistance, activation fatty acid-β oxidation glucose insulin resistance, activation fatty acid-β oxidation | Sharma et al. (52) |
| Mouse model oxidative stress | MDA, SOD, GSH, IL6,TNFα, CRP | NA | High anti-oxidant activity in liver | ||||
| 3 | Canada | Purple (Bars) | Obese adults with chronic inflammation | GSH, ox-LDL, IL6,TNFα, CRP | 1.5% HCl in ethanol | Anti-inflammatory anti-oxidant capacity | Gamel et al. (78) |
| 4 | India | Purple, Blue, Black (Chapatti) | NA | DPPH, ABTS, PCL | 1.5% HCl in methanol | High dietary fibers, protein content, phenolic compounds, anthocyanin content, antioxidant activity | Kumari et al. (9) |
| 5 | Italy | Blue (Sourdoughs) | Murine macrophage cell line RAW 264.7 | FRAP, ABTS | 1.5% HCl in ethanol | High anti-oxidant activity in cultured cells | Galli et al. (79) |
| 6 | India | Purple, Blue, Black (Flour, wheat grass) | NA | DPPH, ABTS | 1.5% HCl in methanol | Antimicrobial activity of black wheat against bacteria yeast, Antioxidant activity | Sharma et al. (80) |
| 7 | Italy | Purple (Pasta) | Human intestinal epithelial Caco-2 cells | Enzyme activity; NF-κB | 1% HCl in Ethanol | α- glucosidase, α-amylase inhibition, anti-inflammatory activity | Parizad et al. (70) |
| 8 | Canada | Purple (Bars, Crackers) | NA | ABTS, DPPH, ORAC | 1.5% HCl in ethanol | High anti-oxidant activity, protein content, Dietary fiber | Gamel et al. (78) |
| 9 | China | Purple | NA | NA | NA | High Se | Xia et al. (46) |
| 10 | South Korea | Purple (Flour) | NA | DPPH, APX, Catalase, SOD, Peroxidase | 1% HCl in methanol, Phosphate buffer | Anti-oxidant activity | Hong et al. (81) |
| 11 | China | Purple, Blue, Black (Flour) | NA | DPPH, ABTS | 1% HCl in Ethanol | High Antioxidant activity | Wang et al. (57) |
| 12 | Canada | Purple | Normal Human | NA | NA | Positive effects on digestion, metabolism, utilization of the products | Gamel et al. (43) |
| 13 | Czech Republic | Purple | NA | NA | NA | High yellow pigment content | Paznocht et al. (59) |
| 14 | India | Purple, Blue, Black (Flour) | Murine macrophage cell line RAW 264.7 | DPPH, ABTS, PCL | 1.5% HCl in ethanol | High anti-oxidant anti-inflammatory activity, High Fe, Zn | Sharma et al. (34) |
| 15 | Czech Republic | Blue, Purple (Flour) | NA | DPPH | 0.1% HCl in methanol | High anti-oxidant activity | Zrckova et al. (82) |
| 16 | Czech Republic | Blue (Pellets) | Rat | FRAP | 1% HCl in methanol | Increases anti-oxidant status of rat blood in vivo influenced the drug- metabolizig microsomal cytochromes P450 | Prokop et al. (83) |
| 17 | China | Purple (Flour) | NA | FRAP | Methanol/acetone/ water solution (7:7:6) | High protein content, phenolics,Fe, Zn anti-oxidant activity | Ma et al. (38) |
| 18 | China | Black | Patients with type 2 diabetes | NA | NA | Improves glycemia inflammatory profile of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients | Liu et al. (84) |
| 19 | Slovakia, Ukraine, Poland, Germany | Purple (Flour, wheat grass) | NA | DPPH, ABTS | 1% HCl in Methanol | High anti-oxidant activity | Sytar et al. (85) |
| 20 | Canada | Purple (Bran Flour) | NA | DPPH, TEAC, ABTS | 1.5% HCl in ethanol | High anti-oxidant activity | Abdel-Aal et al. (35) |
| 21 | China | Blue, Blue, Black | NA | NA | NA | High protein, essential amino acids content, lysine, Zn, Fe, Mg | Tian et al. (39) |
| 22 | Ethiopia | Purple (Flour) | NA | NA | 1.5% HCl in methanol | High anthocynin content | Kassegn (37) |
| 23 | Russia | Purple (Biscuits) | NA | Blizar antioxidant activity analyzer | 1% aqueous solution of HCl | High anti-oxidant activity | Khlestkina et al. (67) |
| 24 | Czech Republic | Purple, Blue | NA | NA | NA | High yellow pigment content | Paznocht et al. (60) |
| 25 | Czech Republic | Purple | NA | NA | NA | Vitamin E activity | Lachman et al. (49) |
| 26 | Czech Republic | Purple, Blue | NA | NA | NA | Vitamin B1, B2, B6, E | Granda et al. (50) |
| 27 | China | Blue | NA | NA | NA | High phenolics, High antioxidant activity | Zhang et al. (86) |
| 28 | Russia | Bread | NA | Amperometric method | High anti-oxidant activity | Khlestkina et al. (67) | |
| 29 | Czech Republic | Purple | Rats, chickens, fish | DPPH, FR, FRAP, ABTS | NA | Improves anti-oxidant activity function of the liver tissue | Mrkvicová et al. (87) |
| 30 | Italy | Purple, Blue (Milling fractions) | NA | DPPH | 1.5% HCl in ethanol | Anti-oxidant activity | Giordano et al. (66) |
| 31 | Slovakia | Purple | Rats | AOPP, TBARS, AGEs, FRAP | NA | Anti-oxidant activity (Serum) | Janšáková et al. (88) |
| 32 | Italy | Purple (Pasta) | NA | NA | NA | Low glycemic index, High yellow pigment content | Ficco et al. (13) |
| 33 | Italy | Purple (biscuits) | NA | DPPH | 1.5% HCl in methanol | High protein, anti-oxidant activity | Pasqualone et al. (11) |
| 34 | Canada | Purple (bread) | NA | DPPH, ABTS | 1.5% HCl in methanol | High anti-oxidant activity | Yu and Beta (65) |
| 35 | China | Purple, Black (Noodles, Bread) | NA | FRAP. ABTS | 1.5% HCl in methanol | High phenolics, high anti-oxidant activity | Li et al. (71) |
| 36 | Slovakia | Purple (Milling fractions) | NA | DPPH | Methanol | High anti-oxidant activity | Ivanišová et al. (89) |
| 37 | Italy | Blue, Purple (Flour) | NA | TEAC | 1.5% HCl in methanol | High Fe, Zn Mn, Anioxidant activity | Ficco et al. (17) |
| 38 | China | Black | NA | ABTS | NA | High total phenolic, carotenoid favonoidcontents, anti-oxidant activity | Sun et al. (63) |
| 39 | China | Purple (Flour) | NA | NA | NA | High protein content, Zn, Fe, Mg, K, Vitamins B2, B9, E | Guo et al. (40) |
| 40 | Germany | Purple | Caenorhabditis elegans | DPPH | 1.5% HCl in methanol | Extended mean life span, high anti-oxidant activity | Chen et al. (90) |
| 41 | United States | Blue | NA | FC, TEAC, LMB | 80% ethanol, acetone, ethyl acetate | Anti-oxidant activity | Tyl and Bunzel (91) |
| 42 | Canada | Purple (Infant cereals) | Primary human fetal small intestine cell line (FHs 74 Int, CCL-241) | ORAC | 1.5% HCl in methanol | High anti-oxidant activity | Hirawan et al. (73) |
| 43 | Ethiopia, Vienna, Austria | Blue, Purple | NA | NA | 1.5% HCl in methanol | High Anthocyanin protein content | Eticha et al. (92) |
| 44 | Canada, China | Purple | NA | DPPH, ORAC | 1.5% HCl in methanol | Anti-oxidant activity, Total flavonoid content | Liu et al. (56) |
| 45 | Canada | Blue | NA | DPPH, ABTS, LDL Oxidation | 1.5% HCl in ethanol | Anti-oxidant activity | Abdel-Aal et al. (58) |
| 46 | Canada, China | Black | NA | NA | NA | High protein | Nandy et al. (93) |
| 47 | Canada | Purple | NA | NA | NA | High Melatonin | Hosseinian et al. (19) |
| 48 | Canada, Hong Kong, China | Blue | Mouse macrophage RAW264.7 cell | DPPH, ABTS, ORAC | 0.1% HCl in methanol | Anti-oxidant activity | Hu et al. (94) |
| 49 | Austria, Italy | Purple, Blue | NA | TEAC, FRAP | Citric Acid + Ethyl Acetate + Methanol | Anti-oxidant activity | Siebenhandl et al. (95) |
| 50 | China, Canada | Purple (Muffins) | NA | ORAC, DPPH | 1.5% HCl in ethanol | Anti-oxidant activity | Li et al. (10) |
| 51 | Canada | Purple | NA | ORAC, DPPH | 1.5% HCl in ethanol | High anti-oxidant activity | Li et al. (12) |
| 52 | Canada, China, Hong Kong | Black | NA | High Protein content, total essential amino acids, total amino acids, content, High Se | Li et al. (41) | ||
| 53 | China, Canada, Hong Kong | Black | NA | DPPH | Methanol (100%) | High Anti-oxidant activity | Li et al. (29) |
| 54 | China | Purple | NA | NA | NA | High Fe, Zn | He and Ning (45) |
ABTS, 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid); DPPH, 1,1 diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl; FC, Folin–Ciocalteu; FRAP, Ferric reducing ability of plasma; FR, Free Radicals method; LMB, Leucomethylene blue; ORAC, Oxygen radicals absorbance capacity; PCL, Photochemiluminescence; TEAC, Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity method; MDA, Malondialdehyde test; SOD, Superoxide dismutase; GSH, Glutathione peroxidase; ox-LDL, Oxidized low-density lipoprotein; TNFα, Tumor necrosis factor α; CRP, C-Reactive Protein; AOPP, Advanced oxidation protein products; TBARS, Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances; AGEs, Advanced glycation end products; NF-κB, Nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells; APX, Ascorbate peroxidase.