Table 2.
Main characteristics of the cross-sectional studies that investigated the association between spiritual activities and mental health.
| References | Country | Sample characteristics | Sample Size | Mean Age | Religious parameter | Assessment tool | Mental health parameter | Assessment Tool |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Khodarahimi et al. (137) | Iran | Community-Dwellers and Nursing home residents | 120 | 64–93 | Spirituality | Spiritual Well-Being Inventory | (a) Cognitive tolerance; (b) Happiness |
(a) Multiple Stimulus Types Ambiguity Tolerance Scale-II; (b) Oxford Happiness Questionnaire |
| Aydin et al. (138) | Turkey | Community-Dwellers and Nursing home residents | 144 | 60+ | Spiritual Well-being | Spiritual Well-being Scale | Psychological well-being; (b) Meaning in Life Questionnaire |
Symptom Checklist-90-R; (b) Meaning in Life |
| Fernandes et al. (139) | Portugal | Community-dwelling older adults | 102 | 77.3 | Spiritual Well-being | Spiritual Well-being Scale | Satisfaction With Life | Satisfaction With Life Scale |
| Gallardo-Peralta and Sánchez-Moreno (63) | Chile | Community-dwelling older adults | 170 | 60+ | religiousness/spirituality | Brief Multidimensional Measure of Religiousness/spirituality | Depressive Symptoms | GDS-30 |
| Ilyas et al. (140) | Pakistan | Community-dwelling older adults | 410 | 61+ | Spirituality | Self-Developed Scale | Self Esteem | Self-Developed Scale |
| Hassoun et al. (141) | Spain | Older religious residents | 435 | 83.1 | Spiritual Well-being | Spiritual Well-being Scale | Sense of suffering | Escala Humanizar |
| Moreno et al. (73) | Mexico | Community-dwelling older adults | 39 | 71.0 | Spirituality; Religiosity | a Escala de Perspectiva Espiritual; DUREL | Alcohol abuse | Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test-Version Geriatric |
| Salman and Lee (142) | Taiwan | Community-dwelling older adults | 150 | 65+ | Spiritual well-being; (b) |
Spirituality Index of Well-Being; (b) Spiritual Practices Checklist |
Depressive Symptoms | CES-D |
| Thauvoye et al. (143) | Belgium | Community-dwelling older adults | 279 | 76.0 | Spirituality | Self-Developed Scale | Positive Mental Well-Being | Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale |
| Araújo et al. (144) | Portugal | Non-demented | 80 | 101.0 | Spirituality | Valuation of Life Scale | Satisfaction With Life | Satisfaction With Life Scale |
| Garces et al. (145) | Brazil | Community-dwelling older adults | 241 | 60+ | Spiritual Well-being | Spiritual Well-being Scale | Resilience | Resilience Scale |
| Lee and Salman (146) | Taiwan | Community-dwelling older adults | 150 | 65+ | Spiritual well-being | Spirituality Index of Well-Being | Depressive Symptoms | CES-D |
| Pilger et al. (147) | Brazil | Community-dwelling older adults | 114 | 60–79 | Spirituality | Spiritual Well-Being Scale | Psychological Well-Being; (b) Death and dying |
WHOQOL-BREF; WHOQOL-OLD |
| Souza et al. (148) | Brazil | Community-dwelling older adults | 301 | 60+ | Spirituality; Religiosity | Escala de Espiritualidade de Pinto e Pais-Ribeiro; Self-Developed Scale | Hope | Hearth Hope Index |
| Vitorino et al. (149) | Brazil | Institutionalized Older Adults | 148 | 76.6 | religiousness/spirituality | spiritual/religious coping scale | Psychological Well-Being; (b) Death and dying |
WHOQOL-BREF; WHOQOL-OLD |
| Ali et al. (150) | Iran | Community-dwelling older adults | 141 | 60+ | Spiritual Well-being | Spiritual Well-being Scale | Mental health | SF-36 |
| Jun et al. (151) | USA | Older adults in assisted living facilities | 224 | 65–102 | Spirituality | Brief Multidimensional Measures of Religiousness/Spirituality | Depressive Symptoms | Geriatric Depression Scale–Short Form |
| Oliver et al. (152) | Spain | Community-dwelling older adults | 224 | 75+ | Spirituality | Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy | Satisfaction With Life; Hope; | satisfaction with life scale; Dispositional Hope Scale |
| Caldeira et al. (153) | Portugal | Older adults with cancer | 45 | 70.3 | Spiritual Well-being | Spiritual Well-being Scale | Spiritual distress | Self-Developed Scale |
| Park et al. (100) | USA | Community-dwelling older adults | 200 | 72.5 | religiousness/spirituality | Brief Multidimensional Measure of Religiousness/Spirituality | Depressive Symptoms | GDS-30 |
| Coleman et al. (154) | Bulgaria and Romani | Older adults from Rural Areas | 160 | 71.9 | Spiritual belief | The Royal Free Interview for Religious and Spiritual Beliefs |
Depressive Symptoms | Depression subscale of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale |
| Lee and Yoon (155) | USA | Korean Immigrants | 206 | 76.3 | religiousness/spirituality | Brief Multidimensional Measures of Religiousness/Spirituality | Psychological Well-Being | General Well-Being Schedule |
| Vahia et al. (156) | USA | Community-dwelling older adults | 1,942 | 73 | Spirituality | Brief Multidimensional Measure of Religiosity/Spirituality | Mental Health; Resilience; Optimism; Depression |
SF-36; Connor-Davidson Scale for Resilience; Life Orientation Test; CESD |
| Skarupski et al. (157) | USA | Community-dwelling older adults | 6,534 | 74.2 | religiousness/spirituality | Daily Spiritual Experiences | Depressive Symptoms | CES-D |
| You et al. (158) | Korea | Community-dwelling older adults | 152 | 65–94 | Spirituality | Self-Developed Scale; The Spirituality Index of Well-Being; Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale |
Depression subscale of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale | Profile of Mood Status |
| Kirby et al. (159) | England | Institutionalized Older Adults | 233 | 80.0 | Spiritual beliefs | Royal Free Interview for Spiritual and Religious Beliefs | Psychological Well-Being | Psychological Well-Being Scale |
| Meisenhelder and Chandler (160) | USA | Older Native Americans | 71 | 75.0 | Spirituality | Self-Developed Scale | (a) Mental Health; (b) Emotional Aspects Limiting Functioning |
SF-36 |
CESD, Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression; GDS, Geriatric Depression Scale; SF-36, Short Form Health Survey; USA, United States of America; WHOQOL, World Health Organization Quality of Life.