Table 2.
Socio-demographic and clinical characteristics of participants.
| Measures | Group | Males | Females |
t-Value or χ2 |
df | Sex Difference p-Value * |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Participants | 568 | 216 (38%) | 352 (61.9%) | |||
| Age (years) | 66.07 ± 4.09 | 66.30 ± 4.05 | 65.93 ± 4.12 | 1.02 | 566 | 0.308 |
| Education (years) | 16.20 ± 3.86 | 16.43 ± 3.99 | 16.03 ± 3.75 | 1.21 | 562 | 0.228 |
| Body Mass Index (BMI) | 26.47 ±4.74 | 26.78 ± 3.81 | 26.29 ± 5.23 | 1.19 | 549 | 0.234 |
| Underweight (<18.5) | 4 (0.7%) | 0 | 4 (1.1%) | - | - | - |
| Normal (18.5–24.9) | 195 (34.3%) | 56 (25.9%) | 139 (39.5%) | - | - | - |
| Overweight (25.0–29.9) | 239 (42.0%) | 112 (51.9%) | 137 (36.1%) | - | - | - |
| Obese (>30.0) | 113 (19.9%) | 42 (19.4%) | 71 (20.2%) | - | - | - |
| Screening measures | ||||||
| Mini Mental State Examination score | 28.82 ± 1.20 | 28.54 ± 1.33 | 28.99 ± 1.08 | −4.35 | 533 | 0.000 * |
| Geriatric Depression Score (GDS) | 3.15 ± 3.05 | 3.16 ± 3.05 | 3.15 ± 3.07 | 0.04 | 552 | 0.967 |
| Cardiovascular features | ||||||
| Cardiovascular condition | 199 (27.3%) | 77 (35.6%) | 122 (34.7%) | 0.061 | 563 | 0.805 |
| Hypertension | 117 (16%) | 54 (25%) | 63 (17.9%) | 4.16 | 563 | 0.041 * |
| Cholesterol | 75 (10.3%) | 30 (13.9%) | 45 (12.8%) | 0.145 | 562 | 0.703 |
| Systolic blood pressure (mm Hg) | 129.55 ± 16.67 | 132.01 ± 16.07 | 128.04 ± 16.87 | 2.63 | 506 | 0.009 * |
| Diastolic blood pressure (mm Hg) | 75.07 ± 10.60 | 76.56 ± 10.72 | 74.15 ± 10.43 | 2.50 | 506 | 0.013 * |
| Medication use | ||||||
| Cardiovascular medications overall | 174 (23.8%) | 67 (31%) | 107 (30.4%) | 0.020 | 562 | 0.889 |
| Hypertensive medication | 102 (14%) | 49 (22.7%) | 53 (15.1%) | 5.24 | 562 | 0.022 * |
| Statins | 74 (10.1%) | 30 (13.9%) | 44 (12.5%) | 0.219 | 562 | 0.640 |
| Medications other | 271 (37.1%) | 103 (47.7%) | 168 (47.7%) | 0.001 | 562 | 0.973 |
| Analgesics (e.g., paracetamol) | 59 (8.1%) | 21 (9.7%) | 38 (10.8%) | 0.173 | 562 | 0.678 |
| Corticosteroid or estrogens | 60 (8.2%) | 13 (5%) | 47 (13.4%) | 7.67 | 562 | 0.006 * |
| NSAIDs | 45 (6.2%) | 17 (7.9%) | 28 (8.0%) | 0.002 | 562 | 0.965 |
| PPIs | 46 (6.3%) | 17 (7.9%) | 29 (8.2%) | 0.027 | 562 | 0.870 |
| Supplement and vitamin use | ||||||
| Supplements and vitamins general | 336 (46%) | 110 (50.9%) | 225 (63.9%) | 9.40 | 562 | 0.002 * |
| Omega 3 | 160 (21.9%) | 55 (25.5%) | 105 (29.8%) | 1.30 | 562 | 0.254 |
| Vitamin D/calcium | 192 (26.3%) | 48 (22.2%) | 144 (40.9%) | 21.15 | 562 | 0.000 * |
| Glucosamine | 93 (12.7%) | 36 (16.7%) | 57 (16.2%) | 0.019 | 562 | 0.891 |
| Minerals (iron, zinc, magnesium) | 117 (16%) | 30 (13.9%) | 87 (24.7%) | 9.69 | 562 | 0.002 * |
| Vitamin E supplement (antioxidant) | 31 (4.2%) | 7 (3.2%) | 24 (6.8%) | 3.34 | 562 | 0.068 |
| Oxidative stress | ||||||
| F2-Isoprostanes | 904.66 ± 355.76 | 856.77 ± 389.84 | 935.57 ± 329.03 | −2.21 | 411 | 0.028 * |
| Mood measures | ||||||
| Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) | 3.22 ± 3.92 | 3.56 ± 4.06 | 3.15 ± 3.84 | 0.58 | 496 | 0.563 |
| Chalder Fatigue Scale | 14.30 ± 3.08 | 14.46 ± 3.10 | 14.22 ± 3.05 | 0.82 | 472 | 0.412 |
| General Health Questionnaire | 11.57 ± 6.02 | 11.83 ± 6.16 | 11.43 ± 5.94 | 0.71 | 483 | 0.479 |
* p-Values significant where < 0.05. df—degrees of freedom; NSAID—non-steroidal anti-inflammatories; mm Hg—millimetres of mercury; POMS—Profile of Mood States; PPI—proton pump inhibitors.