Table 1.

Types of interventions and outcomes.

Study	Intervention Type	Outcome
Peer-education as a tool to educate on antibiotics, resistance and use in 16–18-year-olds: A feasibility study in United Kingdom [3]	Educational	Post-intervention students reported a higher median knowledge score.
Effect of didactic educational intervention on improving knowledge of antibiotics use and resistance in Yogyakarta Community [17]	Educational	Post-educational intervention, a large proportion of the respondents (75%) became more aware and mindful about appropriate antibiotic usage. The didactic intervention resulted in higher knowledge and improved practice regarding antibiotics use (p < 0.05).
Impact of community-based educational intervention on antibiotic use and resistance awareness among the people living in Ras Al Khaimah, United Arab Emirates [18]	Educational	After the intervention, participants’ knowledge regarding AMR significantly improved—full course of antibiotics should be taken (% change: 50%, p < 0.00l), infections from resistant bacteria are difficult to treat (% change: 38%, p < 0.001), antibiotics are of no use in viral infections (% change: 72%, p < 0.001).
The effect of public health educational campaign regarding antibiotic use and microbial resistance on knowledge, attitude, and practice in the Iran [19]	Educational	After the intervention, the mean of knowledge based on a scale and attitude of the participants was increased (p < 0.05).
Using debate to educate young people in schools about antibiotic use and resistance: A before and after evaluation using a questionnaire survey in England [20]	Educational	There was a significant improvement in knowledge after the debate lesson measured through the quantitative questionnaires (p < 0.05).
The Consequences of AMR Education and Awareness Raising: Outputs, Outcomes, and Behavioural Impacts of an Antibiotic-Related Educational Activity in Lao PDR [21]	Educational	The intervention had an impact on the awareness levels and understanding about drug resistance, recognition for the term ‘drug resistance’ rose from 27.6% to 91.4% among participants. However, there was little effect on the attitudes of participants.
A mixed-method evaluation of peer-education workshops for school-aged children to teach about antibiotics, microbes and hygiene in England [22]	Educational	The knowledge increase was greater in rural schools compared with schools in urban areas post intervention on the different areas covered in the intervention with (p < 0.01) for 2 sections and (p < 0.001) for other 2 sections.
A literacy-sensitive approach to improving antibiotic understanding in a community-based [23]	Educational	There was an increase by 2.0 points on the 14-point antibiotic knowledge index score from 11 to 13, (p = 0.0011) for the 19 participants completing both the pre and post-test.
Educational intervention to enhance adherence to short-term use of antibiotics in Malta [24]	Educational	The intervention significantly increased adherence to prescribed short-term antibiotics and reduced wastage. Ten percent from intervention group and 24% from control were non-adherent (p = < 0.0005), with a 2.8-fold increase in the percentage cost of wasted antibiotics in the control group.
Aston University’s Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) Roadshow: raising awareness and embedding knowledge of AMR in key stage 4 learners in United Kingdom [25]	Theatre	Post intervention, there was increased accuracy to 91% MCQ questionnaire responses and 100% positive change in response to Likert Scale questions at 12 weeks.
The drugs don’t work: Evaluation of educational theatre to gauge and influence public opinion on antimicrobial resistance in United Kingdom [2]	Theatre	The educational theatre proved to be a successful intervention in increasing the public’s knowledge and understanding about AMR. There was a significant change in scores of participants for 5 out of 8 questions after the play (p < 0.05).
The effects of gamification on antimicrobial resistance knowledge and its relationship to dentistry in Saudi Arabia: A randomized controlled trial [26]	Gamification	The intervention had a positive impact on the knowledge gain and retention levels of the participants in the study group (SG) from that of the control group (CG). There was a notable reduction in knowledge in CG compared to SG after a month (t (90.967) = −3.252, p = 0.002) as per t-test analyses.
Can gaming increase antibiotic awareness in children? A mixed-methods approach in United Kingdom [27]	Gamification	Two areas in the questionnaire showed improvement in knowledge out of seven. These were focused on usage of antibiotics for bacterial infection and the completion of antibiotics course (p = 0.01 and p < 0.001)
Development and randomized controlled trial of an animated film aimed at reducing behaviours for acquiring antibiotics in United Kingdom [28]	Animated Film	Post intervention, the participants had increased knowledge with the majority of participants (89.1%) agreeing the film was informative though there were not any behavioural changes noted after 6 weeks.
Reducing expectations for antibiotics in primary care: A randomised experiment to test the response to fear-based messages about antimicrobial resistance in United Kingdom [29]	Fear-based messaging	Different levels of fear-based messages yielded different responses; however, the ‘strong fear plus empowerment’ message had a positive impact on participants and they said they were less likely to ask for an antibiotic from their GP (p < 0.0001).
‘The Mould that Changed the World’: Quantitative and qualitative evaluation of children’s knowledge and motivation for behavioural change following participation in an antimicrobial resistance musical in United Kingdom [30]	Musical	There was good response recorded at post intervention at two weeks and 6 months with consistency in correct answers with regard to key messaging.
Changing Patient and Public Beliefs About Antimicrobials and Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) Using a Brief Digital Intervention in United Kingdom [31]	Digital Intervention	Post intervention, there was a significant increase in antibiotic knowledge, AMR concerns, and a reduction in demand for antibiotics based on 17 questions (p < 0.0001).