Table 3.

Summary table of the impacts on mammal cells of SAW. (↗: increase in, ↘: decrease in, N.A.: not available, AFM: atomic force microscopy, IDT: interdigital transistor, PDMS: polydimethylsiloxane, *: extrapolation based on the hypothesis that the electrode impedance is at 50 Ω).

Reference	Frequency (MHz)	Intensity or Electrical Power	Duty Cycle (%)	Time	Shear Flow	Device	Cells	Temperature Control	Biological Effects	Hypothesis
[48]	10	65–250 mW	N.A.	N.A.	N.A.	Slanted IDT, LiNbO3 chip	Human red blood cells (RBC) RBC infected by the malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum	None	Enrichment, separation of the cells depending on their pathological state	Cell density impacts their displacement with the shear flow
[7]	77–164	80–1000 mW cm−2 up to 13.6 mW	100 or 0.00077	5 min–27 h	N.A.	LiNbO3 chip covered with a SiO2 layer (= substrate), PDMS well	Madin–Darby canine kidney (MDCK-II) Human osteosarcoma sarcoma osteogenic (SaOs-2) Human embryonic kidney (T-REx-293)	Estimated rise of 2.4 °C	Wound healing ↗ cell migration ↗ cell proliferation	Direct mechanical stimulation > flow field, or electrical field
[49]	101–204	380 mW	100	seconds	N.A.	4 IDT, LiNbO3 chip	Human lymphocytes RBC infected by the malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum	Thermally controlled chamber	Patterning of spatially isolated individual cells in an acoustic field defined in 2D	N.A.
[50]	48.8	467 mW	2.5	48 h	Shear stress 120–280 mN m−2 Shear velocity 600 ± 250 μm s−1	LiNbO3 chip, titanium substrate, PDMS well	Human monocytes (U-937)	Rise ≤ 0.5 °C	↗ cell proliferation (+36%)	Shear stress linked to SAW has a more positive impact than stirring
[51]	14	Up to18 V, 59.3 mW cm−2 and 0.23 µW for a single cell (400 µm2) order of magnitude up to 100 mW *	100	4–8 h	Velocity up to 56 µm s−1, shear stress 3.8 mPa	LiNbO3 chip, glycerol as a coupling liquid with the PDMS cell culture chamber	Mouse embryonic fibroblasts (NIH-3T3)	Feedback loop to maintain the temperature of the medium flow	Cell migration first enhanced, then suppressed as the intensity rose No reduction in cell viability Thicker actin bundles	Cell orientation alignment along the propagating wave, high traction forces activated the Rho signaling pathway
[52]	160	631 mW	100	60 min	Shear rate distribution 1750–6900 s−1	Gold IDT, LiNbO3 chip, a cylindrical PDMS chamber on top filled with culture medium, cells attached to a titanium implant on top	SaOs-2	Temperature maintained at 37 °C, no precision	Correlation between shear flow and cell detachment from an implant	Cell density plays a key role
[53]	19.35	325–575 mW	100	10 s	Velocity 0–9 mm s−1	LiNbO3 chip, titanium layer, aluminum substrate,	none	/	↗ penetration rate into a porous scaffold	N.A.
[54]	161–171	31.6 mW	N.A.	>330 µs per pulse	N.A.	Gold and titan LiNbO3 chip, covered with glass, PDMS microchannel device	Mouse melanoma cells (B16F10)	None.	Sorting rate of 3000 cells s−1 depending on their fluorescence (Calcein-AM)	N.A.
[55]	196.7	1 mW 10–20 kPa	100	3–10 min	N.A.	Quartz (SiO2) chip, cells suspended in glycerin, SU-8 microprobe	Chondrosarcoma (JJ012) Breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231, SKBR3, MCF7)	None	US velocity measurement for single cell analysis 106 sensitivity in elasticity compared to AFM	Cell elastic moduli is a possible biomarker for aggressiveness or metastatic potential
[56]	132	55–500 mW	100	100 s	Velocity 0.42–1.80 m s−1 Shear stress 0.01–0.045 Pa	Concentric gold IDT, LiNbO3 chip	Untreated, and non-infected human RBC Glutaraldehyde- treated RBC RBC infected by the malarial parasite	None	Cell detachment behavior was different according to the RBC state of infection.	Specific mechanotransduction might be a biomarker
[57]	159	2–4 mW	100	48 h	N.A.	LiNbO3 chip, SiO2 substrate, PDMS well	SaOs-2	Rise ≤ 0.32 °C	↗ wound healing as a function of US intensity no significant necrosis no preferred direction for migration/proliferation	Unclear if the effect is due to mechanical or electrical stimulation, or a combination of both
[58]	N.A.	316–501 mW	100	0–60 min	Shear flow 2 Pa	LiNbO3 chip, titanium substrate	SaOs-2	Thermally controlled chamber	No significant impact on cell adhesion, when T ≤ 37 °C	Decrease in cell adhesion is due to increase in temperature or decrease in pH
[8]	38.74	125.6 mW	80	2 h	N.A.	Two circular IDT (and two straight IDT for SSAW), LiNbO3 chip, covered with Al, and PDMS channels	Human glioma cell lines (U87) Rat RBC	None	Cell sorting depending on their virulence	Sorting of particles is dependent on their size